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COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 




FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 



BY SIMON KERL, A.M. 



" Fungar vice cotis, acutum 
Reddere quas ferrum valet, exsors ipsa secandi." 



Horace, 




NEW YOEK: 
PHINNEY, BLAKEMAN, AND MASON. 

BUFFALO: BREED, BUTLER & CO. 

1861. 



K E R L \ S e^f ^ 
SEEIES OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 



««.>♦>. »■ 



Kerl'§ Primary English Grammar. — This little book 
is designed for beginners, and as an introduction to the Comprehensive Gram- 
mar. Since variety in his text-books on the same subject, always causes a loss 
of time and labor to the learner, this little work, excepting the last few pages, 
is made identical, page for page, with the first part of the larger G rammar. It 
is also made in accordance with what seem to be the latest and best opinions on 
the science of grammar and the art of teaching. 72 pp., 12 mo, well bound. 
Price 25 cents. 

I£erl 9 s Comprehensive English Grammar, — This book 
is designed to be a thorough Practical Grammar, for the use of Common Schools. 
Nearly all that it contains beyond what the generality of grammars have, will 
be new and useful. To its sections on Vebbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, 
Parsing, Analysis, Yersification, Punctuation, Capital Letters, Rhe- 
torical Figures, and False Syntax, particular attention is directed ; and also 
to the arrangement of matter, and to the copious Illustrations and Exercises 
360 pp., 12 mo. Price 15 cents. 

Kerl's Treatise on the^nglish language. — This book 
is designed for the use of High-Schools, Colleges, and Private Students. It will 
embrace, so far as practicable, the History, Etymology, Grammar, and 
Structure of the Language, with copious Illustrations and Critical Re- 
marks, an Essay on Composition, an Essay on Delivery, and a Collection 
of Synonyms. Large 8 vo. (In Press.) 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1861, 

By SIMON KEEL, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. 



Stereotyped by Smith & McDougal, 82 & 84 Beekman-street. 
J. M. Johnson. Printer and Binder, Buffalo, N. T. 



PREFACE 



It is generally admitted, at least by those persons who frequently have occa- 
sion to write the English language, that the knowledge of this subject, obtained 
in our schools, is not sufficient for the various requirements of life. In the fol- 
lowing pages we therefore offer to the public an English Grammar that is de- 
signed to be, for practical purposes, more thorough than any other we have seen, 
the very largest not excepted. 

In its matter, it does not differ much from other grammars, except that it has 
more, and that much of it is fresh from the original sources of the science. What- 
ever others have written on the subject, I have endeavored to ascertain ; though 
I trust I have treated them less piratically and censoriously than most of them 
have treated their predecessors. The incidental remarks on grammar, made by 
reviewers, philologists, and other writers, have been diligently sought and con- 
sidered. The best grammars of foreign languages have also been consulted, 
especially those of Becker, Yivier, Andrews, Crosby, and Kiihner. Of the exer- 
cises to be corrected, about one half are the best of those which form the com- 
mon inheritance of the science; and for the others I have read some work or 
works from every State in the Union, in order that the book may show all the 
various kinds of errors which are now current, like undetected counterfeit money, 
in the various parts of our country. If children imbibed no errors at home, it 
were well to exclude such exercises from grammars : but when a person has 
already caught a disease, I suppose it is best to convince him of his condition, 
and show him how to get rid of it. Errors in spelling, and errors manufactured 
by grammarians, are of course objectionable ; but errors that are gathered from 
the usage of good writers, are a very different thing. Besides, parsing and an- 
alysis, when used alone, become too monotonous and wearisome, and hardly 
suffice to teach the correct use of the language. 

In regard to the arrangement of matter, — an important item, — I venture to 
claim for the book a superiority over every other of its kind. It is well known 
that science and literature languished, until Bacon and Shakespeare emancipated 
them from the thralldom of ancient opinions ; and, as Latin Grammars were first 
made, and English Grammars modelled after them, the latter have probably suf- 
fered from a similar dominion. A language that has many inflections, may well 
have its etymology taught as a separate branch ; but a language, like ours, 
whose actual inflections might all be printed on two or three pages, needs no 
such treatment. Besides, words have etymology because they have syntax — the 
very existence of the one implying the other ; and to stop with etymology, is 
to leave the work half finished. The greatest stickler for separating them in our 
language, has failed to draw the dividing line; and much of the etymology 
taught in our grammars — as in the cases of nouns — is sheer syntax. Every 
teacher of experience, too, must have observed how wearisome to pupils is the 
long desert of etymology, before they see its application in syntax ; and then 
they often do not get the full benefit of this, because they have but a faint and 
confused recollection of the other. Moreover, by the usual system, almost the 
whole grammar must be learned before any practical benefit is derived from it ; 
and, as children in many parts of the country can attend school only a part of 
each year, the consequence is, that they begin their grammar from year to year, 
get tired of its technical jargon, and, finally, derive little benefit from the study. 
By the arrangement in this treatise, each section bears its own fruit, and will 
be, if learned, of permanent value, whether any further progress is made or 
not. The book, too, can be more conveniently resumed at the beginning of any 
section. 



IV PREFACE. 

Parsing and Analysis have not only been made full, but stripped of much 
superfluous machinery. Doctrines and classifications have, in many places, been 
simplified and abridged ; and for some of the insufficient articles in our grammars 
have been substituted others that are altogether more substantial. The book 
comprises both a Primary and a Higher Grammar, and is, in the highest sense, 
progressive and philosophical. It is built up by a regular synthesis from the 
alphabet to Versification ; then follows the article on Analysis, which relates to 
all that precedes it, and is of the utmost importance to the next and last article, 
namely, Punctuation. In other grammars, most of the doctrine is printed in small 
type, and the exercises are printed in larger. This may be more agreeable to the 
teacher, but it is less so to the learner. I have given the main principles first, 
in large type, and apart from the examples ; then the exercises in type sufficiently 
large ; and, lastly, the unimportant doctrine in smaller type, under the head of 
Observations, and at the end of each section. The best modes of learning and 
teaching have been constantly kept in mind ; but, of course, no perfectly sane 
teacher or learner will imagine, that the grammar of a mighty language — of a 
language that reaches into every fibre of human knowledge, can be learned with- 
out labor, or in "six lessons !" A full preface, explanatory and defensive, would 
require many pages. I therefore leave the work, without further remark, to the 
candor, judgment, and research of the reader. 



TO TEACHERS. 

Since almost every teacher has his own views about teaching, it is probably 
needless to add any suggestions. It may be proper, however, to state, that the 
pupil should learn, of the irregular verbs, only those forms which are in good 
present use, the others having been inserted merely for reference. The exer- 
cises from p. 36 to p. 44, should be used constantly with the recitations on the 
parts of speech. While the pupil is engaged in the parsing exercises, pp. 47 — 57, 
it may be well for him to strengthen himself by reviewing several times what 
precedes them. The numbers over words show the Rules of Syntax. The in- 
terrogation-points on the left of paragraphs in Part Second, are used in stead of 
questions. They are a sort of substitute for the pencil-marks of teachers. The 
section on the Derivation of Words may be omitted, if taught in some other book. ' 
For a few of its words, the pupil will have to consult his dictionary. It would 
be a useful exercise for the pupil to copy the sentences given as examples in 
Part Second. He would thus learn to spell, to punctuate, to use capital letters, 
and would become familiar with all the various sentences which make language. 
The exercises for correction, it is probably best for the pupil to write off cor- 
rected, and bring them to school as a part of his evening task. If they be cor- 
rected orally, I would recommend that it be not done with too much ceremony 
or mechanical mannerism. In the sentence, " Him and me are of the same age," 
for instance, the pupil may simply say, "Incorrect: Mm and me, in the objective 
case, should be he and /, in the nominative case, because ' A pronoun used as 
the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.' " l?or additional 
examples in analysis and parsing, may be used the numerous examples from p. 
257 to the end. The section on Analysis, though near the end, should be studied 
as soon as possible, and reviewed frequently. A Key to the Exercises will be 
furnished, if it should be found necessary. It was my design to add an article 
on Composition, but as this is not necessarily a part of grammar, and as it would 
have mueh enlarged the size of the book, I have omitted it. Should the present 
work be favorably received, however, I may add, as a sequel to this book, a 
small but adequate treatise on Composition ; so that the two books will make a 
course of Grammar, Rhetoric and Composition. 



-. 



INDEX. 



Abbreviations, 317, 321 

Accent, . . 62-3 ; Poetic, . . 275-6 

Adjectives, 10, 149-64 

Adjectives, Principles, .... 149-56 
Adjectives, Pronominal, . . . 153-55 
Adjectives, Exercises,- .... 157-61 
Adjectives, Observations, . . . 161-4 

Adjuncts, 33, 217-8 

Adverbs, 30-2, 208-17 

Adverbs, List of, 31-2 

Adverbs, Principles, 208-11 

Adverbs, Exercises, 211-15 

Adverbs, Observations, .... 215-17 
Analysis of Sentences, . . . 298-314 

Arrangement, 258-9 

Articles, . .- " . 9, 140-9 

Articles, Principles, 140-2 

Articles, Exercises, 142-6 

Articles, Observations, .... 147-9 

Articulation, 66 

Brackets, 342 

Cases, 7, 112-9 

Clauses, 3, 298-300 

Colon, 318-21 

Comma, 323-30 

Comparison, Degrees of, . . 11, 130--3 

Conjugation, 23-9, 187-8 

Conjunctions, .... 33-5, 230-40 
Conjunctions, List of, .... 34-5 
Conjunctions, Principles, . . . 230-2 
Conjunctions, Illustrations, . . 232-5 
Conjunctions, Exercises, . . . 236-9 
Conjunctions, Observations, . . 239-40 

Curves, 340-2 

Dash, 335-9 

Declension, 8-9 

Derivation of Words, .... 83-90 

Discourse, 3, 298, 310-11 

Ellipsis, 260 

Emphasis, 6Q 

Equivalent Expressions, . . . 258-9 

Etymology, 60 

Exclamation-point, 342-4 

Exercises, General, . . 36-44, 243-50 
Figures, Rhetorical, .... 262-71 
Forms of the Verb, . . 20, 24-9, 189 

Genders, 5-6, 101-4 

Grammar, 59 

Hyphen, 343-5 

Infinitives, ... 12, 21-2, 165, 182-6 

Interjections, 35-6, 240-2 

Interrogation-point, 231-2 

Letters, . 60-2 ; Capital, . . . 67-77 
Marks, Miscellaneous, .... 351^ 
Moods, .... 17-8, 168-71, 175-6 
Nouns, 4, 91-140 



Nouns, Principles, . . . . . 91-118 

Nouns, Exercises, 119-33 

Nouns, Observations, .... 134-40 
Numbers, 6, 105-12; of Verbs, 177-80 
Observations, General, .... 25-7 

Orthography, 60, 67-83 

Parsing, 47-57 

Participles, ... 12, 21-2, 165, 182-6 

Parts of Speech, 2,90 

" " " Words of Different, 242-3 
Pauses, . . 67 ; Poetic, ... 274 

Period, 316-18 

Persons, 6, 104-5 ; of Verbs, « 177-80 

Phrase, 3, 311 

Pleonasm, 260-1 

Poetry, 272, 296 

Predicates, 2-3, 300 

Prefixes,- 84-6 

Prepositions, 32-3, 217-30 

Prepositions, Principles, . . . 217-8 
Prepositions, Illustrations, . . 219-23 
Prepositions, Constructions, . . 223-6 
Prepositions, Exercises, . . . 226-9 
Prepositions, Observations, . . 229-30 

Pronouns, 4-5, 94-140 

Pronouns, Principles, .... 94-119 

Pronouns, Exercises 119-33 

Pronouns, Observations, . . . 134-40 

Pronunciation, .- 60-6 

Propositions, 3. 298-313 

Prosody, '. ._ 60 

Punctuation, 315-54 

Quantity, 275 

Quotation-marks, 346-7 

Rhetorical Devices, 258-62 

Roots of Words, 83-9 

Scanning, 279-96 

Semicolon, 321-23 

Sentences, 3, 298-313 

Spelling:, 78-83 

Subjects, 2-3, 300 

Suffixes, 87-90 

Syllables, 77-8 

Syntax, . . 60 ; Rules of, . . 44-7 

Tenses, 18-9, 171-6 

Tones, 66 

Underscore, 347-8 

Verbs, 12-30, 164-208 

Verbs, Auxiliary, .... 22-3, 180-2 
Verbs, Irregular, List of, . . . 13-16 

Verbs, Principles, 164-88 

Verbs, Exercises, 189-204 

Verbs, Observations, .... 204-8 

Versification, 272-98 

Voices, 167-8 

Words, . . • 1-2 



For any thing not found among the general principles, see the Observations 
at the end of the section. 



ST1WMS §f MIT flfi», 



1. Introctuctory Tiew, or a synthetic outline. — Letters, 
syllables, words, subjects, predicates, phrases, propositions, clauses, 
sentences, discourse. 

2. Nouns and Prononu§. — Classes : nouns, — proper and 
common ; pronouns, — personal, relative, and interrogative. Proper- 
ties : genders, — masculine, feminine, common, and neuter ; persons, — 
first, second, and third ; numbers, — singular and plural ; cases, — 
nominative, possessive, and objective. Declension. Exercises. 

3. Articles, — Kinds ; definite and indefinite. How a and an 
should be used. 

4. Adjectives. — Classes: descriptive and definitive; definitive, 
with sub-classes. Degrees of comparison ; positive, comparative, 
superlative. List of adjectives irregularly compared. 

5. Verbs. — Classes : verbs finite, participles, infinitives , regular 
verbs, irregular verbs, list of irregular verbs ; transitive or passive, 
intransitive or neuter. Properties : voices, — active, passive ; moods, 
— indicative, subjunctive, potential, imperative, infinitive ; tenses, — 
present, past, future, perfect, pluperfect, future-perfect, with forms — 
common, emphatic, progressive, passive ; persons and numbers. Par- 
ticiples and infinitives. Auxiliary verbs. Conjugation. Exercises. 

6. Adverbs. — Their chief characteristics. Full list carefully 
classified. 

7. Prepositions. — Their chief characteristics. Adjuncts. 
List of prepositions. 

§. Conjunctions. — Classes ; coordinate, subordinate, corres- 
ponding. List of conjunctions classified according to their meanings. 

9. Interjections. — List, classified according to the emotions. 

10. Exercises on all the Parts of Speech. 

11. Rules of Syntax. — The relations of words to one another 
in the construction of sentences. 

12. Parsing. — Formulas, models, and examples. 



PART FIRST. 



1. INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 

What is a letter t 

A letter is a character that denotes one or more of the 
elementary sounds of language. 

Examples : A, b, c ; a ge, a t, a rt, a 11 ; &u£$le ; cent, cart. 

j@^» Always read the examples carefully, reflecting upon each, so that you may learn clearly and 
fully what is meant by the definition or description. 

How many elementary sounds has our language, and how many letters to represent them ? 

About forty elementary sounds, and twenty-six letters to 
represent them. 

Into what two classes are the letters divided ? 

Into vowels and consonants. 

Which are the vowels ? 

A, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

What is a syllable ? 

A syllaMe is a letter, or two or more combined, pro- 
nounced as one unbroken sound. 

Ex. — A, I, on, no, not, stretched, barb'dst, a-e-ri-al, pro-fu-sion. 
What is a word f 

A word is a syllable, or two or more combined, used as 
the sign of some idea. 

Ex. — Man, tree, world, sky, pink, beauty, strikes, well, fair, alas, because. 

An idea is the picture or notion of a thing, in the mind. 

How are words classified according to the number of syllahles composing them ? 

Into monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyl- 
lables. 

Define these classes. 

A monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; a dissyllable, 
of two ; a trisyllable, of three ; and a polysyllable, of four 
or more. 

Ex. — I, song ; baker, railroad ; ornament, commandment ; customary, incom- 
prehensibility. 

How are words classified according as they are formed, or not formed, from one another ? 

Into primitive, derivative, and compound. 



2 INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 

Define these classes. 

A primitive word is not formed from another ; a deriva- 
tive word is formed from another ; and a compound word is 
composed of two or more others. 

Ex. — P rim i tiv e: Breeze, man, good, build, up. Derivativ e : Breezy, 
manful, goodness, builder, rebuild. (Jompoun d: Sea-breeze, mankind, dew- 
drop, newspaper, upon, sewing-machine. 

How are words divided according to what they denote ? 

Into nine classes, called parts of speech. 

Name them. 

Nouns , Pronouns y Articles, Adjectives , Verbs, Adverbs, 
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

Familiar Explanation. — I might present to your mind, by words alone, ali 
that I have ever seen or experienced. To do this, I would have to use nouns and 
pronouns, to denote objects ; articles, to aid the nouns ; adjectives, to express the 
qualities, conditions, or circumstances of objects ; verbs, to express their actions, 
or states of existence ; adverbs, to describe their actions, or to show the nature or 
degree of their qualities ; prepositions, to express their positions or relations to one 
another ; conjunctions, to continue the discourse, or to connect its parts ; and inter- 
jections, to give vent to any feeling or emotion springing up suddenly within me. 

Ex. — Nouns: "In spring, the sun shines pleasantly upon the earth, leaves 
and flowers come forth, and birds sing in the woodsy 

Pronouns: « Eoses encircle my window, and th ™ s ^°™ the ™£T" 

Articles : " The church stands on a hill." 

Adjectives: " Ripe strawberries are good." " That man owns two farms." 
Verbs : "Rivers flow, stars shine, men work, and boys study and play." 
Adverbs : " Below us, a most beautiful river flowed very smoothly." 
Prepositions: " There are cedars on the hill beyond the river." 
Conjunctions: " John and James are happy , because they are good." 
Inter j ections : "We all seek for happiness; but, alas! how few of us 
obtain it." 

Suggestion to the Teacher. — Take a walk with your class, during some leis- 
ure interval, and teach them the parts of speech, from the surrounding scenery. 



Since the world furnishes thousands and thousands of objects for us to consider, or think 
about, and since we never speak without having something in mind, what is essential to every 
thought or saying ? 

A Subject and a Pbedicate. 

What is meant by the subject ? 

The subject denotes that of which something is said or 
affirmed. 

Ex. — " The cannons were fired." " The leaves and flowers in the garden 
have been killed by the frost." 

What is meant by the predicate t 

The predicate denotes what is said or affirmed. 

Ex.— " The cannons were fired." "The leaves and flowers in the garden 

have been hilled by the frost." 

• How are subjects and predicates classified ? 

Into simple and compound. 



INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 3 

Define simple subjects and compound subjects. 

A simple subject lias but one nominative to which the 
predicate refers ; a compound subject has more than one. 

Ex. — Simp le: " The boy learns ;" " The boy who is studious, learns." 

Compound: " The boy and his sister learn." " The boys and girls who 

are studious, learn." 

Define simple predicates and compound predicates. 

A simple predicate has but one finite verb referring to the 
subject ; a compound predicate has more than one. 

Ex. — Simple: "Boys study;" "Boys study the lessons which 

are given to them." G ompo und: "Boys" study, recite, and play ;" 

" Boys study and recite the lessons which are given to them.'''' 

Subject, from subjectus, thrown under, because viewed as being the foundation on which the propo- 
sition or sentence is based. Predicate, from prcedico, I speak or say. 

What is a phrase ? 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but 
not making a proposition. 

Ex. — " In the next place." " To show you the fragrant blossoms of spring." 
What is a proposition ? 

A proposition is a subject combined with its predi- 
cate. 

Ex. — " Stars shine." " Even if my hopes should perish." 

A proposition may be a clause, or not ; or it may he a sentence, or less than a sentence. It is not 
necessarily either a clause or a sentence. 

What is a clause ? 

A clause is any one of two or more propositions which 
together make a sentence. 

Ex. — "Jhe morning was pure and sunny, the fields were white with daisies, 
the hawthorn was covered with its fragrant blossoms, the bee hummed about every 
bank, and the swallow played high in air about the village steeple." — Irving. This 
sentence has five clauses, separated by the comma. 

What is a sentence f 

A sentence is a thought expressed by words. 

Ex. — "Everyman is the architect of his own fortune." "Happy is he who 
finds a true friend, and happy is he who possesses the true qualities to be a friend." 

How are sentences classified ? 

Into simple and compound. 

What is a simple sentence ? 

A simple sentence contains but one proposition. 

Ex. — "Wasps sting." " No man knows his -destiny." " Eeturn (thou) quickly.'- 
What is a compound sentence ? 

A compound sentence contains two or more clauses. 

Ex. — " As every thread of gold is precious, so is every moment of time ; and as 
it would be folly to shoe horses (as Nero did) with gold, so it is to spend time in 

trifles." — Mason. 

What is discourse t 

Discourse is any series of properly related sentences, 
expressing continuous thought. See your Reader, . 



4 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

2. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

What is a noun ? 

A noun is a name. 

Examples : God, Mary, man, men, George Washington, instructor, sky, sun, 
stars, clouds, town, St. Louis, street, flock, flower, soul, feeling, sense, motion , 
behavior. 

t Names are given to persons or other spiritual beings, to brute animals, and to 
things. The word objects may be used as a general term for all these classes. 

Tell me which are the nouns in the following sentences :— 

Lions and ostriches are found in Africa. 

John and Joseph drove the horses to the pasture. 

Pinks and roses are blooming in the garden. 

Care, sorrow, and discontent, destroy happiness. 

Apples, peaches, melons, corn, and potatoes, are brought to market. 

What is a proper noun ? 

A proper noun is an individual name. 

Ex. — George, Solomon, Susan, William Shakespeare, Napoleon Bonaparte, Lon- 
don, New York, Niagara, Mississippi, the Andrew Fulton, Monday, January. 

What is a common noun ? 

A common noun is a generic name. 

Ex. — Boy, girl, tree, house, river, city, town, road, path, bucket, horse, cow, 
hog, chair, wagon, book, pen, boat, ink, bird, blackbird. 

Generic means belonging to a class ; and individual, belonging to one object or 
group only, as distinguished from others of the same kind. AH the objects in the 
world may be divided into a limited number of classes; as, rivers, valleys, hills, 
cities, leaves, flowers. A few of these classes — namely, persons, places, months, 
days, ships, boats, horses, oxen, rivers, mountains, and some others — are of so 
much importance to us in our daily affairs, that we have an extra name for each 
object of the class ; as, Tliomas, Smith, Chicago, Missouri. The names of the former 
kind are common nouns ; those of the latter, proper nouns. A proper noun begins 
with a capital letter. 

How many kinds of nouns are there, and what are they f 

What is a pronoun t 

A pronoun is a word that supplies the place of a noun. 

Ex. — " William promised Mary that William would lend Mary William's 
grammar, that Mary might study the grammar," is expressed with greater facility 
and more agreeably, by saying, " William promised Mary that he would lend her 
his grammar, that she might study it. 

Pro means for, or in stead of; hence pronoun means for a noun. The word substantive 
is often used as a general term to denote either a noun or a pronoun, or whatever is used in 
the sense of a noun. 

What is a personal pronoun ? 

A personal pronoun is one of a class of pronouns whose 
chief use is, to distinguish the different persons. 

Ex. — " /told you he was not at home." " We told him you were not at home." 

Persons, in grammar, are properties of words to distinguish the speaker, what is spoken to, and 
what is spoken of, from one another. 

Which are the personal pronouns ? 

I, my, mine, myself, me; we, our, ours, {our self,) ourselves, 
us; — thou, thy, thine, thyself, thee; you, ye, your, yours, 
yourself, yourselves ; — he, his, him, himself; she, her, hers, 
herself; it, its, itself; they, their, theirs, them, and themselves, 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. ° 

What is a relative pronoun ? 

A relative pronoun is one that makes its clause depend- 
ent on another clause. 

Ex.— " There is the man whom you saw;" "From the side of a mountain 
gushed forth a little rivulet, which lay, like a silver thread, across the meadow. 1 
do not know who took your hat" ; " No one knows what ails the child." Observe 
that the Italic words with what follows each, can make sense only in connection 
with the other words, and hence they are said to be dependent. 

Which are the relative pronouns ? 

Who, whoever, whosoever; whose, whosever, whosesoever; 
whom, whomever, whomsoever; which, whichever, whichso- 
ever; what, whatever, whatsoever; that; and as. 

Whoso and whatso are sometimes found as shortened forms of whosoever and 
whatsoever. 

What is an interrogative pronoun ? 

An interrogative pronoun is one used to ask a ques- 
tion. 

Ex.—" Who took my hat ?" " Which is yours ?" " What ails the child ?" 
Which are the interrogative pronouns ? 

Who, whose, whom; which; and what. 

What other words are frequently used as pronouns ? 

One, ones, oneself, none; other, others; that, those; each 
other, one another. 

Which of the foregoing pronouns are compound, or what is a compound pronoun ? 

A compound pronoun is a simple pronoun with self, 
selves, ever, so, or soever, annexed to it ; or it is a pronoun 
consisting of two words.\ 

Ex.— My, myself; your, yourself; them, themselves ; who, whoever ; each other. 
How many chief kinds of pronouns are there, and what are they? 
What properties have nouns and pronouns ? 

Genders, persons, numbers, and cases. 

Just as every apple, for instance, must be of some size, have some kind of color, have some kind 
of flavor, be hard or mellow, &c. 



a. The pupil should constantly bear in mind, that language is made to suit the 
world, and not the world to suit language. The properties of words arise generally 
from the nature or relations of objects. 

We can readily observe that the objects around us are either males, lemales, or 
neither ; and to enable us to be sufficiently definite in these respects, words have 
what grammarians call genders. 

When is a noun or pronoun of the masculine gender, or what does the masculine gender 
denote ? 

The masculine gender denotes males. 

Ex.— Man, Charles, brother, horse, ox, drake, instructor, he, his, him. 
When is a noun or pronoun of the feminine gender, or what does the feminine gender 
denote ? 

The feminine gender denotes females. 

Ex.— Woman, Susan, nif ce, cow, duck, instructress, she, her. 



(1 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

When is a noun or pronoun of the common gender, or -what does this gender denote ? 

The common gender denotes either males or females, 
or both. 

Ex. — Parent, child, friend, cousin, people, bird, animal, I, we, our, your, who. 

Common means applicable to either sex ; neuter means applicable to neither sex. 

When is a noun or pronoun of the neuter gender, or what does the neuter gender denote ? 

The neuter gender denotes neither males nor females. 

Ex. — Book, rock, rose, wisdom, vice, cloud, happiness, it, what. 
How many genders are there, and what are they t 



M« In speaking, we may refer either to ourselves, to something spoken to, or 
to something spoken of, and there are no other ways of speaking ; hence words 
have what grammarians call perso?is . 

When is a noun or pronoun of the first person, or what does the first person denote ? 

The first person denotes the speaker. 

Ex. — "7 Andrew Jackson, President of the United States." u I Paul have 
written it." " We, the people of these colonies." 

When is a noun or pronoun of the second person, or what does the second person denote? 

The second person represents an object as spoken to. 

Ex. — " Thomas, come to me." u Gentlemen of the jury." " Happiness ! our 
being's end and aim." " Thou, thou, art the man." " Wave your tops, ye pines, ." 

When is a noun or pronoun of the third person, or what does the third person denote ? 

The tliird person represents an object as spoken of. 

Ex. — u Experience and hope, pleasure and pain, life and death, money and power, 
have a mighty influence on the actions of mankind." " He knew it was what she 
wanted him to buy." 

How many persons are there, and ivJiat are they t 



C« There are more than one of almost every kind of objects ; and in speaking 
we are continual] y referring either to one object or to more, of the different kinds 
with which we have to do ; hence words have what grammarians call numbers. 

When is a noun or pronoun of the singular number, or what does the singular number 
denote ? 

The sirag'ulasr number denotes but one. 

Ex. — Desk, key, leaf, boy, Arthur, deer, sheep, swarm, army, I, my, me, thou, 
thee, thyself, yourself, he, him, she, her, it, itself. 

When is a noun or pronoun of the 'plural number, or what does the plural number denote? 

The plural number denotes more than one. 

Ex. — Desks, keys, leaves, boys, deer, sheep, ashes, swarms, armies, we, our, 
us, ye, they, them. 

How is the plural number of nouns generally formed ? 

By adding s, sometimes es, to the singular. 

Ex. — Glove, gloves; chair, chairs ; church, churches ; bush, oushes ; fox, foxes, 
chimney, chimneys; negro, negroes', nation, nations. 

What is a collective noun ? 

A collective noun is a noun denoting, in the singular 
form, more than one object of the same kind. 

Ex. — Family, army, swarm, crowd, multitude, congregation, pair, tribe, class. , 
How many numbers arc there, and what are they? 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 7 

CI. If I say, " Tour brothers friend sent James to me ; 

Your friend's brother sent me to James ; 

My brother's friend sent James to you ; 

James sent your brother's friend to me ; 

I sent your iriend's brother to James ; 

You sent James to my friend's brother;" you can easily see that 
fill these sentences differ much from one another in meaning. The difference of 
meaning arises from the different relations of the words to one another, and these 
different relations are called cases. That objects exist or act, that objects are owned, 
or make parts .of other objects, and that objects are acted upon, are the three chief 
conditions of things, on which cases are founded. 

When is a noun or pronoun in the nominative case, or what does the nominative case 
denote ? 

1. The nominative case is the case of a noun or pro- 
noun to which a predicate directly refers. 

Ex. — " John strikes James." "Joseph swims." "The field is 

ploughed." "The rose is beautiful." ^ u Fishes swim in the sea, and 

birds fly in the air." " Mary's hunch of flowers is fading." 

2. The nominative case is the case of a noun or pro- 
noun used independently or absolutely. 

Ex. — Independently : "John, come to me ;" "Alas, poor YoricJcP' "The 
Pilgrim Fathers, — where are they ?" " Merchant's Ba?ik." Absolutely: 
"The tree having fallen, we returned;" "Bonaparte being banished, peace was 
restored; " To become a scholar, requires exertion." 

Independently : used in addressing persons or other objects, in exclaiming, or in simply directing 
attentiou to an object. Absolutely ; used before a participle, or after a participle or an infinitive, wiih- 
out being governed by it or controlled by any other "word. 

When is a noun or pronoun in the possessive case, or what does the possessive case 
denote ? 

The possessive case denotes possession. 

Kx.— "John's horse;" "My slat*;" "The ekUdren's bookB ;" "The girls 1 
room." 

What is the regular sign of the possessive case ? 

An apostrophe, or comma above the line, followed by 
the letter s. 

Ex.— "Marys slate;" " Burns' s poems;" "The soldier's grave;" "Men's 
affairs." 

Is the possessive s ahvays expressed? 

It is omitted from plural nouns ending with s, and some- 
times also from singular nouns ending with s, or an s-sound. 

Ex.—" The pigeons' roosting-place ;" " The soldiers' camp ;" " For conscience' 
sake." 

When is a noun or pronoun in the objective case, or what does the objective case 
denote ? 

The objective case is the case of a noun or pronoun 
used as the object of a verb or preposition. 

Ex.— "The horse eats hay ;" "This stream turns a mill'.' "The water flows 
over the damf' "I saw her with him;" "He saw me with her." 

The object of a verb or preposition is the noun or pronorm required after it to make sense \ as, 
"I rolled a stone down the 71111." Here stone i3 the object of the verb rolled, and Mil is the object 
of the preposition doini. 

How many cans are there, and what are they t 



8 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

When must a noun or pronoun agree in case with another noun or pronoun? 

When it is but a repetition of the other, or when it de- 
notes, by way of explanation, the same thing. 

Ex. — " I, i", am the man.'''' " Friends, false friends, have ruined me." "Smith 
is a "barber." " Smith the barber is my neighbor." 

How can the different cases of nouns he distinguished ? 

By their meanings : or, the nominative may be found 
by asking a question with who or what before the verb ; the 
objective, with ichom or what after the verb ; and the pos- 
sessive is known by the apostrophe. 

Ex. — "Mary plucked flowers for John's sister." Who plucked? — plucked 
what ? — for whom? 



©• Having now shown you what properties nouns and pronouns have, I shall 
next show you, briefly and regularly, how the different nouns and pronouns are 
written to express these properties. This process is called declension. 

What, then, is it, to decline a noun or pronoun? 

To decline a noun or pronoun, is to show, in some regu- 
lar way, what forms it has to express its grammatical prop- 
erties. 

Observe that nouns sometimes remain unchanged, and that pronouns are sometimes wholly 
changed, to express their properties. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 
_ Nouns. 





Singular. 


^ 






Plural. 




Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective. 


Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective* 


Boy, 


boy's, 


boy; 


boys, 




boys', 


boys. 


Man, 


man's, 


man ; 


men, 




men's, 


men. 


Lady, 


lady's, 


lady; 


ladies, 




ladies', 


ladies. 


Fox, 


fox's, 


fox; 


foxes, 




foxes', 


foxes. 


John, 


John's, 


John. 














Pronouns. 










Singular. 








Plural. 






Nbm. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


Nbm 


Poss. 


Obj. 


1st Pees. 


I> mj 


r or mine, 


me; 


we, 


our or ours, us. 



2d Pers. 



3d Pers. 



1. 



hm tn y or thine, ) , 

1 hou or you, > thee or vou • 

J ' your or yours, J ^ » 

Mas. He, his, him; 

Fern. She, her or hers, her ; 

Neut. It, its, it ; 

Nom. or Obj. 
Myself {or ourself) ; 
Thyself or yourself; 
Himself, herself, itself; 

Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. 

One, one's, one ; ones, 

Other, other's, other; others, 



ye <9r you, your or yours, you. 
they, their or theirs, them. 

Nom. or Obj. 
ourselves, 
yourselves, 
themselves. 

Poss. Obj. 

ones', ones. 

others', others. 



ARTICLES. 



Sing, or Plur. 



Norn. 
Who, 
Which, 
That, 
What, 
As, 
, None, 



Poss. 
whose, 
whose, 
whose, 



Olj. 
whom, 
which, 
that, 
what. 



( — ever or soever.) 



Decline John, man, toy, lady, fox, farmer, Benjamin, city. 
Decline 7, thou, you, he, she, it, myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, itself \ 
one, other, who, whoever, whosoever, which, what, that, as, none. 

Tell me the, gender of each of the following words, and why : — 
Theodore, Theodora, he, hers, she, I, they, it, who, which, what. 
Tell me the person of each of the following pronouns, and why : — 
I, we, my, myself, thou, thyself, she, he, it, its, himself, one, other, that, who. 
Tell me the number of each of the following pronouns, and why : — 
I, you, he, me, we, my, us, thee, yourselves, them, herself, themselves, it, she, 
hers, which, what, others. 

Tell me the case of each of the following pronouns : — 

I, me, we, us, thou, thee, thyself, they, them, who, whom. 

Of wliat gender, person, number, and case is each of the following pronouns t — 

Him, his, its, he, them, it, I, you, thy, their, she, thou, me, your, us, they, my, 
mine, thine, yours, it, hers, theirs, we, thee, our, ours, ye, them, myself, ourself, 
themselves, ourselves, thyself, yourselves, yourself, himself, itself, herself, one, 
none, one's, ones', other, others', who, what, which, whatever. 

3. ARTICLES. 

If I say, " Give me a book," you understand that any book will answer my 
purpose ; but if I say, " Give me the book," you understand that I want some par- 
ticular book. If I say, " Missouri is north of Arkansas," I mean States ; but if I 
say, " The Missouri is north of the Arkansas," I mean rivers. These little words, 
a and the, which often have so important an effect on the sense of nouns, are called 
articles. 

What, then, is an article t 

An article is a word placed before a noun to show how 
it is applied. 

Ex. — "Man is made for society; but a man naturally prefers the man whose 
temper and inclinations best suit his own." 

How many articles are there, and what are they ? 

Two: 
inite article. 

What does the definite article show? 

The definite article shows 
or objects are meant. 

Ex. — u The horse, the horses, the stage, the Connecticut, the lion; 
meadows ; the iron-bound bucket ; the brave Pulaski." 

What does the indefinite article show ? 

The indefinite article shows that no particular one of 
the kind is meant. 

Ex. — ii A bird, a mouse, an apple, a cherry, a carriage ; an idle boy." 



the, the definite article ; and a or an, the indef- 



that some particular object 



green 



10 ADJECTIVES. 

How do a and an differ ? 

In application only ; in meaning, they are the same. 

Where is an used ? 

Before words beginning with a vowel sound. 

Ex. — "An article, an enemy, an in.ch, an urn, mi hour; an honest man." 
Where is a used ? 

Before words beginning with a consonant sound. 

Ex. — "A banquet, a cucumber, a dunce, a fox, a horse, a jug, a king, a lion, a 
youth, a university, a eulogy ; a one-horse carriage." 

Place the proper indefinite article before each of the following words or phrases:— > 
Eazor, house, knife, humming-bird, chicken, ounce, insult, unit, ox, ball, hun- 
dred, African ; interesting story ; humble cottage. 

4. ADJECTIVES. 

The nouns and pronouns, as you remember, denote objects. But our regard 
for objects depends not a little on their qualities and circumstances ; and hence 
there is a large class of words to express these, for all the various purposes of life. 
The word river, for instance, denotes something that may be cool, deep, clear , swift, 
broad, winding. Apple denotes something that may be red, large, ripe, mellow, 
juicy. And when I say, " that apple, this apple, every apple, four apples, the 
fourth apple," the slanting words show, without expressing quality, more precisely 
what I mean. These qualifying and designating — these descriptive and definitive 
words, which generally add an idea to that of the noun, are therefore called adjectives. 

What, then, is an adjective ? 

An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the 
meaning of a substantive. 

Ex. — White, green, good, lazy, tall, shrill, religious. "A lay horse* a sharp 
knife ; a sharper knife ; a bright day ; a stormy night ; golden clouds ; a gold watch ; 
Missouri apples ; a quivering aspen ; that sun-tipped elm ; a boy nine years old." 
What is a descriptive adjective ? 

A descriptive adjective describes or qualifies. 

Ex. — "A rapid river; the blue sky; a modest woman." u She is beautiful, 
amiable, and intelligent. ^ " The rippling brook; the twinkling stars; waving 
woods; a roaring storm; a broken pitcher." The last five adjectives, and others 
like them, are usually called participial adjectives. 

What is a definitive adjective ? 

A definitive adjective merely limits or modifies. 

Ex. — "Four peaches ; all peaches ; some peaches ; this peach ; yonder peaches." 
Which are the principal definitive adjectives ? 

All, any, both, certain, each, every, either, else, few, many, 
many a, much, neither, no, one, other, own, same, some, such, 
that, this, very, what, which, and yon or yonder. One, two, 
three, four, etc.; first, second, third, etc. 

Nearly all the adjectives of the first class are usually called pronominal adjec- 
tives, some of them being occasionally used as pronouns ; and those of the second 
class are called numeral adjectives. Since we may refer to objects definitely, indef- 
initely, or distributi/vely, the pronominal adjectives are accordingly, some ol them, 
definite or demonstrative, as this, that, yonder; some, indefinite, as any, some, other ; 
and some, distributive, as each, every, either, neither, many a. And since we may 
either count or -number, some of the numeral adjectives are called cardinal, as one, 
tivo, three ; aiid the others, ordinal, as first, second, third. 



ADJECTIVES. 1 1 

Since tlie same quality may exist in different objects, and in the same degree or 
m different degrees, — as, " red cheeks, red roses, red hair, redder cheeks, the 'red- 
dest roses," — adjectives have what grammarians call the degrees of comparison ; the 
positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

"When is an adjective in the positive degree, or what does the positive degree express ? 

The positive degree ascribes the quality simply, or it 
ascribes it in an equal degree. 

Ex. — High, strong, rocky, polite, black, prudent ; " as white as snow." 

When is an adjective in the comparative degree, or what does the comparative degree 
* express? 

The comparative degree ascribes the quality in a 
higher or a lower degree. 

Ex. — Higher, stronger, rockier, politer, better, more prudent, less prudent. 

When is an adjective in the superlative degree, or what does the superlative degree 
express ? 

The superlative degree ascribes the quality in the 
highest or the lowest degree. 

Ex. — Highest, strongest, rockiest, politest, best, most prudent, least prudent. 

How are adjectives of one syllable, and some of two syllables, compared, when we wish 
to express increase of the quality ? 

By adding r or er ; st or est, to the word in the positive 
degree. 

Ex. — Pos. wise, comp. wise?*, superl. wisest ; great, greater, greatest ; lovely, 
lovelier, loveliest • serene, serener, serenest. 

How are all adjectives of more than two syllables, and some of two syllables, compared? 

By more and most. 

Ex.— Pos. beautiful, comp. more beautiful, superl. most beautiful; active, more 
active, most active ; unlucky, more unlucky, most unlucky. 

How are adjectives compared when we wish to express decrease of the quality? 

By less and least. 

Ex. — Wise, less wise, least wise ; arrogant, less arrogant, least arrogant. 

Some adjectives are not compared according to the foregoing rules, and are 
therefore said to be irregular. The following is a list : — 



Positive. Oompar. 


Superl. 


Posit. 


Compar. 


Superl. 


Good, better, 


best. 


Hind, 


hinder, 


hindmost. 


Bad, ill, or evil, worse, 


worst. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


Much or many, more, 


most. 


Near, 


nearer, 


nearest, or next. 


Little, less, 


least. 


Late, 


later, 


latest, or last. 


Eore, former, 


foremost, or 
first. 


Old, 


older, or elder 


oldest, or eldest. 



Can all adjectives be compared ? 

Some can not be compared with propriety. 

Ex. — Eternal, straight, dead, equal, square, perpendicular, two-edged, speech- 
less. 

Is the word which the adjective qualifies or limits, always expressed ? 

It is not ; but, in parsing, it must be supplied. 

Ex. — "These apples are better than those" [apples]. "The idle [persons] are 
generally mischievous." 



12 VERBS. 

5. VERBS. 

[f we look into the world, we shall find, that, to the many different beings and 
things denoted by nouns and pronouns, belong not only many different qualities, 
denoted by adjectives, but also manv different motions, actions, and states of ex- 
istence, which are expressed by certain words called verbs ; as, John reads, writes, 
runs, and plays. 

What, then, is a verb, or what is its chief use in language ? 

A verb is a word used to affirm something of a subject. 

Ex. — " The wind blows.'''' " The rose blooms.'''' "There is an endless world." 
" The tree is dead." " If I should go." " Brutus stabbed Caesar." " Caesar was 
stabbed by Brutus." " Do you not study?" " Do (you) study diligently." 

Verb means word, or, pre-eminently, the word. Grammarians have called this part of speech so, he- 
cause it makes the chief part of every grammar, or because it is the chief word of language. 

Every verb denotes some kind of action or state. And affirmations, with gram- 
marians, mean all kinds of assertions ; also commands and questions. 
Tell which are the verbs in the following sentences, and why : — 

Birds sing. Mother sews, knits, and spins. Columbus discovered America. 
Jesus wept. The dew glistens. Go where the men are reaping. 
The problems should have been solved. The water is frozen. 

When verbs are actually used to express affirmations, they are called finite 
verbs; but there are two forms of the verb which do not express affirmations, and 
are called the participle and the infinitive : as, Writing, written, being written, hav- 
ing ' written, having been written ; to write, to have written, to be written, to have been 
written. 

What, then, is a participle f 

A participle is generally an inflected form of the 
verb, construed like an adjective, and expressing no affirma- 
tion. 

Ex. — " A tree, full of fruit;" "A tree, bending with fruit." "He said few 
things indicative of wisdom ;" " He said few things indicating wisdom." " The 
man was found dead ;" " The man was found murdered." 

Inflected — changed in form ; as, ' write,' writing. Construed — arranged with other words. 

What is an infinitive t 

An infinitive is a form of the verb beginning generally 
with to j and expressing no affirmation. 

Ex. — " An opportunity to study." " He is obliged to sell." " He seems to have 
been disappointed." 

Of how many words may a verb consist ? 

Of as many as four. 

Ex. — " Eagles soar." u The house was built." " The mail mmy have arrived." 
"These lessons should have been learned." " Having written." "To have been 
writing. 

♦ 

Almost every verb may be expressed in a great variety of ways or forms ; thus, 
from write we have writing, wrote, written, writes, writeih, writest, to write, to 
have written, to be written, to have been written, to be writing, to have been writing, 
having written, having been written, is written, was written, should be written, is 
writing, was writing, can write, must write, will write, shall write, would write, 
should write, could write, may write, might write, may be written, may be writing, 
may have been writing, might have been written, might have been writing, mightst have 
been writing, &c, &c. 

Now,that we may be enabled to master all these different forms, — understand 
their meaning, and thus be enabled to use them correctly, — grammarians have 
found it best to divide verbs into certain classes, and also to regard them as Laving 
certain properties. 



VERBS. 



13 



How are verbs classified ? 

Into regular and irregular, with, reference to their form. 

Into transitive and intransitive, with reference to their 
meaning or use ; and the former are often used as passive, 
and some of the latter are always neuter. 

What is a regular verb ? 

A regular verb takes the ending ed, to form its preterit 
and its perfect participle. 

Ex. — Present play, preterit played, perfect participle played ; move, moved, 
moved. 

E, at the end of a word, is dropped before an ending that begins with a vowel. — In stead of preterit 
the pupil may also say past, a less appropriate hut more euphonic word. 
What is an irregular verb ? 

An irregular verb does not take the ending eel, to form 
its preterit and its perfect participle. 

Ex. — Present see, preterit saw, perfect participle seen; speak, spoke, spoken. 

Which are the principal parts of the verb, or those from which all the other parts are 
formed ? 

The principal parts are the present, or the simplest form 
as registered in a dictionary; the preterit, or the simplest 
form affirming past matter of fact ; and the perfect parti- 
ciple, or the form making sense with the word having or 
being. 

Ex. — Pres. (to) walk, write; pret. (I) walked, (I) wrote; perf. part, having 
walked, having written. 



List of Irregular Verbs. 

The following catalogue exhibits the principal parts of all the irregular verbs. 
Having learned these, the student also knows the principal parts of all the other 
verbs, which must be regular. He must not infer, however, from the word irregu- 
lar, that these verbs are a mere straggling offshoot of the language ; for they are 
really the very core or pith of it. 

In using irregular verhs, we are liahle to error for the most part only in the use of those 
■whose preterit and perfect participle are not alike. These verbs have therefore been given 
first, and separate from the rest, that they may be learned perfectly. R. denotes that the 
regular form may also be used in stead of the others. * denotes that the form under it is 
sefdom used, being either ancient, poetic, or of late introduction. The form supposed to be 
of the best present usage, is placed first. The second form of some verbs is preferable, -when 
applied in a certain way ; as, '•'-freighted with spices and silks," "fraught with mischief ;" 
" thunderstruck" " sorrow-siric&ew.." 

1. The Two Past Foems Different. 
Present. Preterit, or Past. Perfect Participle. Present. Preterit, or Past. 



Arise, 
Awake, 

Be, 

Bear {bring 

forth), 
Bear (carry), 

Beat, 

Become, 
Betall, 



arose, 

awoke, r., 

was, 

bore, bare, 

bore, 

beat, 

became, 
befell, 



arisen, 
awaked, 
awoke.* 
been. 

born. 

borne. 

beaten, 

beat. 

become. 

befallen. 



Beget, 

Begin, 

Bid, 

Bite, 
Blow, 
Break , 



begot, 
begat,* 
began, 
begun,* 

bid, bade, 

bit, 

blew, r.,* 
broke, 
brake * 



Perfect Part, 

begotten, 

begot. 

begun. 

bid, 

bidden. 

bitten, 

bit. 

blown, r.* 

broken, 

broke.* 



14 



VERBS. 



Present. Preterit, or Past 
Chide, chid, 

-V Choose, chose, 



Cleave (ad- cleaved, 

here), clave, a * 

Cleave (split), %&*™> 

Come, 



Perfect Participle. 
chidden, 
chid, 
chosen. 



Crow, 

Dare (ven- 
ture), 

(Dare — chal- 
lenge, 

Dive, 

Do (princi- 
pal verb), 

Draw, 

Drink, 

Drive, 

Eat, 
Fall, 

Fiy, 

Forbear, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 
Freeze. 

Freight, 

Get, 

Give, 
Go, 
Grave, 
Grow, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

.Hide, 

Hold, 

Know, 
Lade (load), 

Lean, 

Leap, 

-X Lie (repose), 
(Lie- -speak 

fahely, 
Mow, 

Prove, , 
Rend, 



came, 
crowed, 
crew, 
dared, b 
durst, 

dared, 



cleaved. 

cleft, 

cloven. 

come. 

crowed. 

dared. 

dared.) 



dived, dove, dived. 



did, 

drew, 

drank, 

drove, 
ate, eat, 
fell, 
flew, 
forbore, 

forgot, 

forsook, 
froze, 

freighted, 



went, 

graved, 

grew, 

heaved, 

hove, 

hewed, 

hid, 

held, 

knew, 

laded, 

leaned, 

leant, 

leaped, 

leapt,* 

&y> 

lied, 

mowed, 

proved, 



done. 

drawn. 

drunk, 

drank.* 

driven. 

eaten, eat.* 

fallen. 

flown. 

forborne. 

forgotten, 

forgot. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

freighted, 

fraught. 

got, 

gotten. 

given. 

gone. 

graven, r. 

grown. 

heaved, 

hoven.* 

hewn, r. 

hidden, 

hid. 

held, 

holden. c * 

known. 

laden, r. 

leaned, 

leant. 

leaped, 

leapt.* 

lain. 

iied.) 

mown, r. 

proved, 

proven.* 

rent, 

rended. d * 



Present. 
Ride, 

Ring, 
Rise, 
Rive, 
Run, 
Saw, 
See, 

Seethe, 

Shake, 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Show, 

Shrink, 

Slay, 

Slide, 

Smite, 

Sing, 
Sink, 
Sow (scatter), 

Speak, 

Spit, 

Spring, 

Steal, 

Stride, 

Strike, 

Strive, 
Strow, 

Swear, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Take, 
Tear, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Write, 



Preterit, or Past. 
rode, 

rung, 



rang, 

rose, 

rived, 

ran, run,* 

sawed, 

saw, 

seethed, 

sod, 

shook, 

shaped, 

shaved, 

sheared, 

shore,* 

showed, 

shrunk, 

shrank, 

slew, 

slid, r., 

smote, 

sung, sang, 
sunk, sank, 
sowed, 
spoke, 
spake,* 

spit, spat,* 

sprung, 

sprang, 

stole, 

strode, 

strid, 

struck, 

strove, r., 

strowed, 

swore, 

sware, 

swelled, 

swum, 

swam, 

took, 

tore, 

thrived, 

throve, 

threw, r., 

trod, 

trode,* 

waxed, 

wore, 
w r ove, r. : 
wrote, 
writ * 



Perfect Part, 

rode, 

ridden. 

rung. 

risen. 

riven, r* 

run. 

sawn, r. 

seen. 

seethed, 

sodden. 

shaken. 

shaped, 

shapen. 

shaved, 

shaven. 

shorn, r. 

shown, r. 

shrunk, 

shrunken.* 

slain. 

slid den, 

slid, r. 

smitten, 

smit. 

sung. 

sunk. 

sown, r. 

spoken. 

spit, 
spitten.* 

sprung. 

stolen. 

stridden, 

strid. 

struck, 

stricken. 

striven, r. 

strown, r. 

sworn. 

swollen, t\ 

swum. 

taken. 

torn. 

thrived, 

thriven. 

thrown, r.* 

trodden, 

trod. 

w r axed, 

waxen. 

worn. 

woven, r. 

written. 



(a.) *' My tongue clave to the roof of my mouth." — Dickens, (b.) ' 
not cross." — Macaulay. (c.) Beholden; withhoiden.* {(1.) "Corneas 
forests are vended." — W. Scott. 



' This line he darea 
the winds come when 



VEEBS. 



ie 



2. The Two Past oe the Thkee Foems Alike. 



Present. Preterit, or Past. Perfect Participle. Present. 

Lead, 



Abide, 

Behold, 

Belay, 

Bend, 

Bereave, 

Beseech, 

Bestead,* 

Bet, 

Betide, 

Bind, 
Bleed, 

Blend, 

Bless, 

Breed, 

Briuer, 
Build,' 

Burn, 

Burst, 
Buy, 

Cast, 

Catch, 

Cling, 

Clothe, 

Cost, 
Creep, 
Cut, 
Deal, 

Dig, 
Dwell, 

Dream, 

Dress, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Gild, 

Gird, 
Grind, 
Hang, 

Have (princi- 
pal verb), 
Hear, 
Hit, 
Hurt, 
Keep, 

Kneel, 

Knit, 



abode, ?'.,* 

beheld, 

belaid, r., 

bent, r., 

bereft, ?\, 

besought, 

bestead,* 

bet, *»., 

betided, 

betid,* 

bound, 

bled, 

blended, 

blent,* 

blessed, 

blest, 

bred, 

brought, 

built, r., 

burned, 

burnt, 

burst, r.,* 

bought, 

cast, 

caught, r.,* 

clung, 

clothed, 

clad, 

cost, 

crept, 

cut, 

dealt, r. t * 

dug, r., 

dwelt, r., 

dreamed, 

dreamt, 

dressed, 

drest,* 

fed, 

felt, 

fought, 

found, 

fled, 

flung, 

gilded, 

gilt, 

girt, r., 

ground, 

hung, r., 

had, 

heard, 

hit, 

hurt, 

kept, 

knelt, 

kneeled, 

knit, r. y 



abode, r.* 

beheld. 

belaid, r. 

bent, r, 

bereft, r. 

besought. 

bestead.* 

bet, r. 

betided, 

betid* 

bound. 

bled. 

blended, 

blent.* 

blessed, 

blest. 

bred. 

brought. 

built, r. 

burned, 

burnt. 

burst, r.* 

bought. 

cast. 

caught, r.* 

clung. 

clothed, 

clad. 

cost. 

crept. 

cut. 

dealt, r. 

dug, r. 

dwelt, r. 

dreamed, 

dreamt. 

dressed, 

drest.* 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

gilded, 

gilt. 

girt, r. 

ground. 

hung, r. a 

had. 

heard. 

hit. 

hurt. 

kept. 

knelt, 

kneeled. 

knit, r. 



Learn, 

Leave, 
Lend, 
Let, 

Light, 

Lose, 
Make, 
Mean, 
Meet, 

Pass, 

Pay, 



Preterit, or Past. 
laid, 
led, 

learned, 
learnt, 
left, 
lent, 
let, 

lighted, 
lit, 
lost, 
made, 
meant, 
met, 
passed, 
past,* 
paid, 



(Pen — write, penned, 
pleaded, 



Plead, 

Put, 
Quit, 

Eap, 

Bead, 

Beave, 

Bid, 

Seek, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 

Shred, 

Shut, 

Sit, 

Sleep, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Speed, 

Spell, 

Spend, 
Spill, 
Spin, 
Split, 

Spoil, 

Spread, 

Stay, 

String, 



plead, 

pled, 

put, 

quit, t\, 

rapped, 

rapt, 

read, 

reft, ir.,* 

rid, 

said, 

sought, 

sold, 

sent, 

set, 

shed, 

shone, ?\,* 

shod, 

shot, 

shred, 

shut, 

sat, 

slept, 

slung, 

slunk, 

slit, r., 

smelt, ?\, 

sped, r.,* 

spelled, 

spelt, 

spent, 

spilt, ?\) 

spun, 

split, r., 

spoiled, 

spoilt,* 

spread, 

staid, r., 

strung, r.,* 



Perfect Pari. 

laid. 

led. 

learned, 

learnt. 

left. 

lent. 

let. 

lighted, 

lit. 

lost. 

made. 

meant. 

met. 

passed, 

past. b 

paid. 

penned, 

pent. 

penned.) 

pleaded, 

plead, 

pled. 

put. 

quit, r. 

rapped, 

rapt. c 

read. 

reft, /*.* 

rid. 

said. 

sought. 

sold. 

sent. 

set. 

shed. 

shone, r.* 

shod. 

shot. 

shred. 

shut. 

sat. 

slept. 

slung. 

slunk. 

sht, r. 

smelt, r. 

sped, r.* 

spelled, 

spelt. 

spent. 

spilt, r. 

spun. 

split, r.* 

spoiled, 

spoilt.* 

spread. 

staid, rA 

strung, r. 



(a.) Hang, hanged, hanged ; to suspend by the neck with intent to kill : hut the distinction 
is not always observed. (b.) Past is used as an adjective or as a nouu. (c.) Rap, rapt, rapt : 
to seize with rapture, id.) Stay, stayed, stayad ; to cause to stop. 



16 



VERBS. 



Present, 


Preterit, or Past 


Stave, 


stove, r., 


Stand, 


stood, 


Stick, 


stuck, 


Sting, 
Stink, 


stung, 


stunk, 


Sweat, 


sweat, r., 
swet, 


Sweep, 


swept, 


Swing, 


swung, 


Teach, 


taught, 


Tell, 


told, 


Think, 


thought, 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


Wake, 


woke, r., 


Wed, 


wedded, 
wed,* 


Weep, 


wept, 


Wet, 


wet, r., 


Win, 


won, 


Wind, 


wound, r 



Perfect Particip. 
stove, r. 
stood, 
stuck, 
stung. 


Present Preterit, or Past 

Work worked, 
WorK > wrought, 
Wring, wrung, r.,* 


. Perfect Part 
worked, 
wrought, 
wrung, r.* 




Can, could, 
Do (auxil'y), did, 
Have (auxil'y), had, 
May, might, 
Must, must, 
Ought, ought, 








swept, 
swung, 
taught, 
told 










thought. 




Shall, should, 
Will (auxil'y), would, 

Wit, i 

Wis,* 1 wot* ) 
Weet * f wist,* V 
Wot* J wote,*) 








wedded, 
wed.* 
wept, 
wet, r. 
won. 
,* wound, r.* 


willed.) 



What are the last few verbs usually termed ? 

Defective, because some of the parts are wanting ; and 
verbs having more parts than are absolutely necessary, are 
termed redundant, as bereave, slide, swim. 

How are formed the principal parts of verbs derived from others by means of prefixes ? 

Generally in the same way as those of their primitives. 

Ex. — Take, took, taken ; mistake, mistook, mistaken. 



When is a verb transitive, or what is*a transitive verb ? 

A transitive verb has an object. 

Ex. — " John struck James." " Cats devour rats and mice." " I know him — 
the lesson." 

Transitive means passing over : there is generally an act passing from the doer to what is actea 
on. Intransitive means not passing over. Passive means suffering or receiving. Neuter means neither, 
and neuter verbs were so named because they are neither active nor passive. 

"What is a passive verb ? 

A passive verb is a transitive verb so used that it rep- 
resents its subject as acted upon. 

Ex. — " John struck James." " James was struck by John." 
When is a verb intransitive, or what is an intransitive verb ? 

An intransitive verb does not have an object. 

Ex. — " John walks." u The child cries." " The rose Uooms." " Webster was 
eloquent." " Webster was an orator." "Alice reads and writes well." 

What is a neuter verb ? 

A neuter verb is an intransitive verb that does not imply 
action or exertion. 

Ex. — "Troy was." " There is a land of every land the pride." "The spurs 
lay on the shelf." " The baby sleeps." " The plants look green and fresh." 



VERBS. 1 7 

What properties have verbs ? 

Voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 



21 • A transitive verb can generally be expressed in two different ways ; as> 
"Farmers raise corn," " Corn is raised by farmers": and hence they are said to 
have two voices, — the active and the passive. 

When is a verb in the active voice, or what does this voice denote ? 

The active voice represents the subject as acting, or the 
verb as relating to an object. 

Ex. — "David slew Goliath." "John resembles his father." "They owned 
this farm." 

When is a verb in the passive voice, or what does this voice denote? 

The passive voice represents the subject as acted upon, 
or the verb as having the object for its subject. 

Ex. — " Goliath was slain by David." " This farm was owned by them." 



!>• If I say, "I write," I express a matter of fact; "I mayor can write," I 



pressing the verb in reference to its subject, may give you some idea of what gram- 
marians call moods. 

When is a verb in the indicative mood, or what does the indicative mood express ? 

The Indicative mood affirms something as an actual 
occurrence or fact. 

Ex. — "John lias caught some fish." " God created tnis beautiful world." " Cork 
floats." " The guilty are not happy." " Far away in the South is a beautiful isle." 

Indicative means declaring ; subjunctive, joined to ; potential, having power ; imperative, com- 
manding ; and infinitive, left free. 

How does the subjunctive mood express the act or state ? 

The subjunctive mood affirms something as a future 
contingency, or as a mere supposition, wish, or conclusion. 

Ex. — " If it rain to-night, our plants will live." " Beware lest he deceive you." 
"He talked to me as if I were a widow." " Were I a lawyer, I should not like to 
plead a rogue's case." " 0, had I the wings of a dove." — Gowper. " But if I asked 
your papa, he would only say you had better [to] stay at home." — Bulwer. " But 
I should wrong my friend, if I concealed it." — Id, "If conscience had had, as 
strong a hold on his mind as honor, he had still been innocent." — British Essayists, 

What words often precede this mood, or indicate it ? 

If, though, that, lest, except, unless, provided, &c. 

What does a verb in the subjunctive mood suggest, when it refers to present oi 
past time? 

That the contrary of what is supposed, or something dif- 
ferent, is the true state of the case. See above. 

What other mood does the subjunctive resemble in its form, and what one in its 
meaning ? 

In its form, the indicative ; but in meaning, the potential, 
with which it is also most frequently associated in sen- 
tences. See above. 



18 VERBS. 

How does the potential represent the act or state? 

The potential mood affirms merely the power, liberty, 
liability, necessity, will, duty, or some other relation of the 
subject to the act or state. 

Ex. — " God can destroy this world." " You may play.' 1 '' " Youth may be trifled, 
away." " They who would he happy, must be virtuous.". " Children should obey 
their teachers." 

How can this mood be known, or what words are used to express it? 

May, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 

When is a verb in the imperative mood, or what does the imperative mood express ? 

The Imperative mood expresses command, exhorta- 
tion, entreaty, or permission. 

Ex. — " John, study your lesson." " Go where glory waits thee." " Oh ! then 
remember me." " Return to your friends." 

We command inferiors, exhort equals, entreat superiors, and permit in compliance with the will 
of others. 

What is the subject of every verb in the imperative mood ? 

Thou, you, or ye, usually understood. 

Ex. — " Know thyself "=Know thou thyself. " My young friends, be pure and 
cautious"=My young friends, be ye pure and cautious. 

"When is a verb in the infinitive mood, or how does this mood express the act or state ? 

The infinitive mood does not affirm the act or state. 
It comprises the participle and the infinitive. 

Ex. — " Corn to grind."* "The clouds dispersing." "Be careful to avoid the 



Which of the moods can be used interrogatively ? 

The indicative and the potential. 

Ex.— •" Shall we slight this decisive moment?" "Who is the culprit?" 
"How can I?" 

How are they made interrogative ? 

By placing the subject after the verb, or after some part of it. 

Ex. — "Thou art he;" "Art thou he?" "You can help us;" "Can you 
help us ?" 

How many moods, and what are they ? 



C • Time may naturally be divided into present, past, and future ; and we may 
consider an act or state as simply taking place in each of these periods, or as com- 
pleted: thus, " I write, I have written ;" " I wrote, I had written ;" " I shall write, 
I shall have written." Hence verbs have what grammarians call tenses. 

When is a verb in the present tense, or what does this tense express ? 

The present tense expresses the act or state in present 
time. 

Ex. — " I ivrite." " I am writing." " It snows." " You may commence." " Let 
me see your new bock." "St. Louis is situated on a plain bordering on the Mis- 
sissippi." 



VERBS. 19 

In what peculiar sense is this tense sometimes used ? 

To express what is always so from the very nature or con- 
dition of things. 

Ex. — " Heat melts ice." " A fool and his money are soon parted." " Moles bur- 
row in the ground." " Traveling is expensive." "People must die." " Man is 
made to mourn." 

When is a verh in the past tense, or what is the meaning of this tense ? 

The past tense refers the act or state simply to past time. 

Ex. — " God created the world." "Troy was, but is no more." "Away went 
Gilpin." "Bonaparte was banished to St. Helena." "She died this morning." 
" I soon saio that he could not see." " The ship arrived before day." 

This tense is usually called the imperfect tense, but inappropriately. It may be -well to call it 
the aorist tense, in the subjunctive and the potential mood, whenever it does not denote past time. 

When is a verb in the future tense, or -what is the meaning of this tense? 

The future tense refers the act or state simply to future 
time. 

Ex. — "The cars will come this evening." " Merit will de rewarded." "The 
trees will shed their leaves." " There will be a final judgment day." 

When is a verb in the perfect tense, or what does this tense express ? 

The perfect tense represents something as past, but 
still connected with present time. 

Ex. — " This magnificent city has been built within one hundred years." "He 
has practised law two years." " I have just sold my horse." " The mail may have 
arrived." " This house appears to have been a church." " Though severely wounded, 
he still lives." 

When is a verb in the pluperfect tense, or what does this tense express? 

The pluperfect tense represents something as finished 
or ended by a certain past time. 

Ex. — " I had already sent my trunk to the river, when I received your letter." 
" A fish had been on the hook." " A fish might have been on the hook." 

When is a verb in the future-perfect tense, or what does this tense express ? 

The future-perfect tense represents something as fin- 
ished or ended by a certain future time. 

Ex. — " The flowers will have withered, when winter returns." 

General Illustration. — I write (now). I have written (just now). I wrote 
(at some past time). I had written (by or before a certain past time). I shall write 
(at some time hereafter). I shall have written (by or before a certain future time). 
So, The tree blossoms — has blossomed — blossomed — had blossomed — will blossom 
— will have blossomed. The three perfect tenses are sometimes called the relative 
tenses, because they relate from one point of time to another ; and the other three 
tenses, which have not this relation, are called the absolute tenses. 

Every perfect tense, except sometimes a participle, must have what two parts? 

Have, or some one of its variations, and the perfect par- 
ticiple of some verb. 

Ex. — Have written ; having written ; to have written ; may have written * has been 
writing ; should have been writing ; had written ; shall have written ; shall have 
been written. 



20 VERBS. 

How does tie present, the past, or the future tense, sometimes express an act or state ? 

As something habitual or customary in present, past, or 
future time. 

Ex. — " He cheivs tobacco." " People go to church on Sunday." " The dead are 
put into the ground." " There would he spend his earnings." " The wolf also 
shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid." 

"When the act or state is expressed as ideal rather than real, as in the subjunctive mood, 
and frequently in the potential, what may be observed of the tenses, .in respect to the time of 
the event ? 

That they move forward, one tense or more, in time. 

Ex. — " If I am"— now ; " If I be" — hereafter. " If I was'''' — at any past time ; 
41 If I were'''' — now. " I had been there" — before that time ; " Had I been there 11 — 
at that time. "I am paying you" — now; " I may or can pay you" — next Christ- 
mas. " I paid you" — then ; "I might or could pay you" — now. " I had paid you" 
— before a certain past time ; " 1 might have paid you" — at a certain past time. 
44 Such governments could not last, if they contained ever so much wisdom and 
virtue." — P. Henry. At any time. See 2d def. of present teuse. 



In most of the tenses, a verb may be expressed in several different ways: as, 
44 He strikes ;" " He does strike :" " He is striking ;" " He is struck ;" " He striketh." 
These, grammarians usually distinguish, by calling them, emphatically, the forms 
of the verb. 

When is a verb in the common form, or what is the common form ? 

The common form is the verb expressed in the most 
simple and ordinary manner. 

Ex. — " He went home." " Time flies." " No man has ever been too honest." 
When is a verb in the emphatic form, or what is the emphatic form ? 

The emphatic form has do or did as a part of the 
verb, to give it greater force. 

Ex. — " I did say so." " Keally, it does move." " Bo come to see me." 
When is a verb in the progressive form, or what is the progressive form ? 

The progressive form is be, or some variation of it, 
combined with the participle that ends in ing. It denotes 
continuance of the act or state. 

Ex. — " I wrote ;" " I was writing.'''' " She goes to church ;" " She is going to 
church." 

When is a verb in the passive form, or what is the passive form? 

The passive form is be, or some variation of it, combined 
with the perfect participle. It is generally passive in sense. 

Ex. — " The oak was shattered by lightning." " The melancholy days are come.'' 1 
When is a verb in the ancient form, or solemn style, or how may this form be known ? 

The ancient form has the ending t, st, or est, and th or 
eih, and generally uses thou or ye in stead of you. 

Ex. — " Thou barVdst the dart that wounds thee." " Adversity flattereth no 
man." 

How many tenses, and what are they t — how many forms, and what are they ? 

■ ♦ ■ 

W« When [ say, * 4 1 am, thou art, he is;" " I write, thou writest, he writes ;" 
you see that the verb varies with the person of its subject : and when I say, " I 
am, we are;" " He is, they are;" " He writes, tb ly write ;" you see that the verb 



VERBS. 21 

varies with, the number of its subject. Hence the verb is said to have person and 
number ; that is, it is so expressed as to indicate the person and number of its sub- 
ject, and thereby the subject itself. 

What, then, is meant by the person and number of a verb ? 

The person and number of a verb are its form as being 
suitable to the person and number of its subject. 

The term " a /arm of the verb," signifies, in its widest sense, any mode of expressing it. 
"When is a verb singular, and when plural t 

It is singular , when its form is proper for predicating of a 
singular subject; and plural, when proper for predicating of 
a plural subject. 

Ex. — "The night ivas serene, and the stars were twinkling most brilliantly in 
their blue depths." 

Define singular subjects and plural subjects. 

A singular subject denotes one object, or more objects taken 
singly or separately; a plural subject denotes more than one, 
but not taken as one single thing. 

Ex. — Singular : " The boy is studious ;" "Every tree is known by 

its fruit;" "John, James, or Joseph, is studying ;" "Neither John, James, nor 

Joseph, is studying." Plural: " The boys are studious;" "John, 

James, and Joseph, are studious ;" " The people are fickle." 

In correct discourse, of what person and number is the verb always said to be ? 

Of the same as its subject, or nominative. 

Ex. — " I am." Here am is said to be of the first person and singular number, 
because its subject, /, is of this person and number. 



PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 

What is a participle ? What is an infinitive ? See p. 12. 

How many and what participles are there, and how many and what infinitives are there ? 

Two of each, — the present and the perfect; and also a 
third participle, the compound. 

How does the present participle represent the act or state ? 

The present participle represents the act or state as 
present and continuing at the time referred to. 

Ex. — " We saw the moon rising.' 1 '' " Who goes borrowing, goes sorrowing.^ 
How does the present infinitive represent the act or state ? 

The present infinitive represents the act or state as 
present at the time referred to, but oftener, as future. 

Ex. — "He seems to study.' 1 '' "Man never is, but always to be, blest." — Pope. 
"I intended to sayless, and certainly expected to hear more liberal sentiments of- 
fered on the other side." 

How does the perfect participle or infinitive represent the act or state ? 

The perfect participle or infinitive represents the 
act or state as past or ended at the time referred to. 

Ex. — "A fox, caught in a trap." "The river appears to have risen." "The 
Indians are supposed to have come from Asia or Siberia." 



22 VERBS. 

The perfect participle is sometimes present in sense ; as, " He Uves loved 
by all." The present infinitive sometimes denotes simply the act or state ; and 
the perfect infinitive, the completed act or state. 

What is a compound participle ? 

A compound participle consists of two or more par- 
ticiples ; and it is in sense generally a perfect, but sometimes 
a present ; participle. 

Ex. — "Having purchased a farm, he retired to the country." " The terms being 
settled, he produced the cash.' 7 " He, having teen previously engaged, and being 
then engaged, in making surveys of the country, was the most suitable man we 
could find." 

How is the participle sometimes used ? 

As an adjective, and then called a participial adjective. 

Define a, participial adjective. 

A participial adjective ascribes the act or state to its 
subject as a quality. 

Ex. — " A leaping and murmuring rivulet ;" " Written laws." 
Participles and infinitives are frequently used as what other parts of speech ? 

As nouns, and then often called verbal nouns. 

When should a participle or an infinitive be considered a noun? 

When it evidently takes the place, and is used in the sense, 
of a noun. 

Ex. — " To live without being annoyed, is pleasant." What is pleasant? with- 
out what? — Life without annoyance is pleasant. "Successful studying requires 
exertion." ii To have learned so beautiful an art, will be ever a pleasure to me." 
"My knowing him was of great advantage to me.", " His having been there, was 
the ground of suspicion." " To live temperately, to avoid excitement, and to take 
alternate exercise*and rest, are essential to health" ^Temperance, tranquillity, and 
alternate exercise and rest, are essential to health. " Boys like to play.' 1 '' (Boys like 
apples.) " He began to work." (He began his work.) "To love is to obey." "Tube 
— or not to be, — that is the question !" {Life — or death, — that is the question !) 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

No complete verb in our language can express all its properties, or be expressed 
in all its forms, without the aid of certain other little verbs. Thus, to express 
"strike" in future time, we say, "shall or will strike;" in the potential mood, 
"may, can, must, might, could, would, or should strike;" in the passive voice, "is 
struck, was struck, being struck," &c. These little helping verbs are therefore 
called auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary means helping'. 

How, then, would you define an auxiliary verb ? 

An auxiliary verb helps another verb to express its 
meaning in a certain manner or time. 

Which, are the auxiliary verbs ? 

Be j and all its variations ; do, did; can, could; have, 
had; may, might; must; shall, should; will, would. 

For what are the auxiliaries be and its variations used ? 

They are used to express the verb progressively or pas- 
sively. 

Ex. — "The farmer is ploughing his field." " The field is ploughed." 



VEBBS. 23 

For what are the auxiliaries do and did used ? 

They are used to express the verb with emphasis, or with 
greater force. 

Ex. — " I do assure you, I shall be here in time." " He did say so. 
. What do can and could imply ? 

Power or ability. 

Ex.—'* I can Uft the stone." " I can learn the lesson." " I could not give my 
consent." 

What do have and had imply, and for what are they used ? 

They imply possession, and are used to express the act or 
state as finished or ended at the time referred to. 

Ex. — " I have gathered the plums, which the wind had "blown down." 
What meaning is conveyed hy may and might t 

Permission, possibility, or probability ; sometimes reason- 
ableness. 

Ex. — " You may go to play." " But remember the horse may die." " It may 
rain this evening." " But the question might be asked, whether the tax is legal." 

What do must, shall, and should denote ? 

Duty or injunction : but shall, more frequently compul- 
sion ; and must, generally necessity. 

Ex. — "We should care for others' feelings." " Thou shalt not swear.' 1 '' " You 
must not look for me before next week." " Pupils must obey." " Naughty boy ! 
you shall be punished." 

What do will and would denote ? 

Willingness, adaptation, or tendency. 

Ex. — " He would pay if he could." " This will do." " W T eeds will grow where 
there is no cultivation." " Roses will fade." 

For what purpose are all the auxiliaries more or less used ? 

To express the verb interrogatively. For this purpose, 
they are placed before the nominative. 

Ex. — " You are wounded." " Are you wounded?" "Does he know you?" 

CONJUGATION AND SYNOPSIS. 

What is it, to conjugate a verb ? 

To conjugate a verb is to show, in a regular way, how 
some or all of its parts are correctly expressed. 

Ex. — Be and write in the present tense, indicative mood. 

Singular. Plural 

First Pers. I am, First Pers. We are, 

Second Pers. You are, Second Pers. You are, 

Third Pers. He, she, or it, is ; Third Pers. They are. 

1. I write, 1. We write, 

2. You write, 2. You write, 

3. He, she, or it, writes ; 3. They write. 

Conjugation probably signified, in old times, the joining of various endings and prefixes to the 
chief parts of verbs, called the roots ; but, with us, the word rather signifies the joining of t> e varioua 
♦'ornis to their different nominatives. 



24 y 

"What is it, to give the synopsis of a verb ? 



VERBS. 



To give the synopsis of a verb, is to express it correctly, 
in a single person and number, or in a particular form, through 
some or all of its moods and tenses. 

Ex. — Synopsis of write, with /, through the indicative mood: Present, / write ; past, 
/ wrote ; future, I shall or will write ; perfect, / have written ; pluperfect, I had written • 
future-perfect, I shall or will have written. 

The word synopsis means a looh at the xohola ; and as we are apt to see only the chief or nosi striking 
parts, by looking at all at once, the word has come to signify the chief parts or the outline cf tlie whole 
of a thing. 



CONJUGATION EXEMPLIFIED. 

I have here presented to you the very irregular verb be, the regular verb move* and 
the irregular verb take, in all the forms in which they can be expressed. Like them, or 
by their means, may all other verbs be expressed in all their forms ; and for /, you, he, 
she, it, we, you, and they, can be used any other nominatives having the same person and 
number, that is, all nominatives whatsoever; so that the following conjugation is suffi- 
cent to teach all the correct forms of all the verbs, for all the propositions that have been 
spoken or written, and all that can be spoken or written, in the English language. 

Recite the following paradigm, across the page ; and the synopsis with thou, down the page. 
C. stands for Common Form ; E., for Emphatic ; Pr., for Progressive ; and P., for Passive. 

Observe that the verb, like the nouns and pronouns in their declension, remains sometimes unchanged, is 
sometimes partly changed, and is sometimes wholly changed, to express its different properties ; and that 
it sometimes calls in the help of the auxiliary verbs. 



Be. 



Present. 
Be, 
Move, 
Take, 



Move. 

Principal Parts. 

Preterit, or Past, 
was, 
moved, 
took, 



Take. 



Participle. 
been, 
moved, 
taken. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



ABSOLUTE TENSES. 









Present Tense. 








iSingul 


ir. 






Plural. 


First Person. 


Second Person. 


Third Person. 


1st Pers. 


2rZ Pers. 


3d Pers. 




I 


You He, She, or It, 


We 


You 


They 




am, 


are, 


is; 


are, 


are, 


are. 


C. 


move, 


move, 


moves ; 


move, 


move, 


move. 


E. 


do move, 


do move, 


does move ; 


do move, 


do move, 


do move. 


Pr 


am moving, 


are moving, 


is moving ; 


are moving, 


are moving, 


are moving 


P. 


am moved, 


are moved, 


is moved ; 


are moved, 


are moved, 


are movedl 


a 


take, 


take, 


takes ; 


take, 


take, 


take. 


K 


do take, 


do take, 


does take ; 


do take, 


do take, 


do take. 


Pr 


am taking, 


are taking, 


is taking ; 


are taking, 


are taking, 


are taking. 


P. 


am taken, 


are taken, 


is taken ; 


are taken, 


are taken, 


are taken. 



* Since love can not be used in the progressive form, and is objectionable also for other reasons, 
move has been preferred. It is very difficult to find a suitable verb. The next be*t that oocur to 
me, are row, call, tend, aid, rule. 



VERBS. 



25 



Past Tense. 



dingular. 



a 
& 

Pr. 
P. 

a 

K 

Pr. 

P. 



a 

Pr. 
P. 

a 

Pr. 
P. 



was, 
moved, 
did move, 
was moving, 
was moved, 
took, 
did take, 
was taking, 
was taken, 



Singular, 



be, 

move, 

be moving, 

be moved, 

take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 



2. 3. 1. 

You He, She, or It, We 

were, was : were 



(Imperfect.) 

Plural. 
2. 3. 

You They 



moved, 


moved ; 


moved, 


moved, 


moved. 


did move, 


did move ; 


did move, 


did move, 


did move. 


were moving 


', was moving: 


1 were moving 


, were moving 


, were moving. 


were moved, 


was moved ; 


were moved, 


were moved, 


were moved. 


took, 


took; 


took, 


took, 


took. 


did take, 


did take ; 


did take, 


did take, 


did take. 


were taking, 


was taking ; 


were taking, 


were taking, 


were taking. 


were taken, 


was taken ; 


were taken, 


were taken, 


were taken. 




Future Tense. 


(First-Future.) 








Plural. 


2. 


3. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


You He, She, or It, 


We 


You 


They 




shall or 


will — 






be, 


be; 


be, 


be, 


be. 


move, 


move; 


move, 


move, 


move. 


be moving, 


be moving ; 


be moving, 


be moving, 


be moving, 
be moved. 


be moved, 


be moved ; 


be moved, 


be moved, 


take, 


take; 

be taking ; 


take, 


take, 


take. 


be taking, 


be taking, 


be taking, 


be taking. 


be taken, 


be taken ; 


be taken, 


be taken, 


be taken. 



RELATIVE TENSES. 

Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 



1. 2. 3. 

I You He, She, or It, 

have — have — has— 

been, been, been ; 

G. moved, moved, moved; 

Pr. been moving, been moving, been moving ; 

P. been moved, been moved, been moved ; 

G. taken, taken, taken ; 

Pr. been taking, been taking, been taking ; 

P, been taken, been taken, been taken ; 



1. 
We 
have — 
been, 
moved, 



Plural. 



2. 

You 
Jiave— 
been, 
moved, 



been moving, been moving 

been moved, been moved, 

taken, taken, 

been taking, been taking, 

been taken, been taken, been taken 



They 

have — 
been, 
moved, 
been moving, 
been moved. 
taken, 
been taking. 



Singular'. 
1. 2. 

I You 



Pluperfect Tense. 
3. 1. 



Plural. 



You 



They 



He, She, or It, We 
had— 

been, been, been ; been, been, been. 

G. moved, moved, moved ; moved, moved, moved. 

Pr. been moving, been moving, been moving ; been moving, been moving, been moving. 

P. been moved, been moved, been moved ; been moved, been moved, been moved. 

G. taken, taken, taken ; taken, taken, taken. 

Pr. been taking, been taking, been taking ; been taking, been taking, been taking. 

P. been taken, been taken, been taken ; been taken, oeen taken 4 been taken. 



26 



VERBS. 



Singular, 



Future-perfect Tense. 



1. 2. 3. 1. 

I You He, She, or It, We 

shall or will have — 

been, been, been; been, 

0. moved, moved, moved ; moved, 

Pr. been moving, been moving, been moving ; been moving, 
P. been moved, been moved, been moved ; been moved, 
C. taken, taken, taken; taken, 

Pr. been taking, been taking, been taking ; been taking, 
P. been taken, been taken, been taken ; been taken, 



(Second-Future.) 

Plural. 
2. 3. 

You They 

been, been, 

moved, moved, 

been moving, been moving, 

been moved, been moved, 

taken, taken, 

been taking, been taking, 

been taken, been taken. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 





Singular. 
1. 2. 


3. 


1. 


Plural .' 
2. 3. 




If I 


If you If 


HE, SHE, Or IT, 


If we 


If you 


If they 




be, 


be, 


be; 


be, 


be, 


be. 


a 

K 
Pr 
P. 


move, 
do move, 
be moving, 
be moved, 


move, 
do move, 
be moving, 
be moved, 


move ; 
do move ; 
be moving ; 
be moved ; 


move, 
do move, 
be moving, 
be moved, 


move, 
do move, 
be moving, 
be moved, 


move, 
do move, 
be moving, 
be moved. 


C. take, 
E. do take, 
Pr. be taking, 
P. be taken, 


take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken, 


take ; 
do take ; 
be taking ; 
be taken ; 


take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken, 


take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken, 


take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken. 




Singular. 
1. 2. 


Past or Aorist Tense. 

3. 1. 


(Imperfect.) 
Plural. 
2. 3. 




If I 


If you If 


HE, SHE, Or IT, 


IF we 


If you 


If they 




were, 


were, 


were; 


were, 


were, 


were. 


o. 


moved, 
did move, 


moved, 
did move, 


moved ; 
did move ; 


moved, 
did move, 


moved, 
did move, 


moved, 
did move. 


Pr 
P. 


were moving, 
were moved, 


were moving 
were moved, 


, were moving ; 
were moved ; 


were moving 
were moved, 


were moving 
were moved, 


were moving, 
were moved. 


a 

K 
Pr 
P. 


took, 
did take, 
were taking, 
were taken, 


took, 
did take, 
were taking, 
were taken, 


took; 
did take 5 
were taking ; 
were taken ; 


took, 
did take, 
were taking, 
were taken, 


took, 
did take, 
were taking, 
were taken, 


took, 
did take, 
were taking, 
were taken. 




Singular 
1. 


2. 


Pluperfect 

3. 


, Tense. 

l. 


Plural. 
2. 3. 




If I 


If you If 


HE, SHE, Or IT, 

had- 


If we 


If you 


If they 




been, 


been, 


been; 


been, 


been, 


been. 


0. 


moved, ^ moved, 


moved ; 


moved, 


moved, 


moved. 



Pr. been moving, been moving, been moving ; been moving, been moving, been moving. 
P. been moved, been moved, been moved ; been moved, been moved, been moved. 
C. taken, taken, taken ; taken, taken, taken. 

Pr. been taking, been taking, been taking ; been taking, been taking, been taking. 
P. been taken, been taken, beeii taken ; been taken, been taken, been taken. 

We can also say, " Were I," " Had I been,' 1 " Be it ever so fine, I would not buy it ;" 
for, u If I were,"' " If I had been,' 1 " Though it be ever so line, I would not buy it." 



VERBS. 



27 



Singular'. 



be, 
G. move, 
Pr. be moving, 
P. be moved, 

G. take, 
Pr. be taking, 
P. be taken, 



2. 
You 

be, 

move, 

be moving, 

be moved, 

take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

3. 1. 

He, She, or It, We 
may, can, or must — 



be ; 
move ; 
be moving ; 
be moved ; 

take ; 

be taking ; 

be taken ; 



be, 

move, 

be moving, 

be moved, 

take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 



Past or Aorist Tense. 



Singular. 



I 



2. 
You 



2. 
You 

be, 

move, 

be moving, 

be moved, 

take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 



Plural, 
3. 
They 



be. 

move. 

be moving. 

be moved. 

take. 

be taking. 

be taken. 



3. I- 2 - 

He, She, or It, We You 

might, could, would, or should — 



(Imperfect.) 
Plural. 
3. 
They 



a 



be, 
move, 



Pr. be moving, 
P. be moved, 
0. take, 
Pr. be taking, 
P. be taken, 



be, 

move, 
be moving, 
be moved, 

take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 



be ; 
move ; 
be moving ; 
be moved ; 

take; 

be taking ; 

be taken ; 



be, 
move, 
be moving, 
be moved, 

take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 



be, 

move, 

be moving, 

be moved, 

take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 



be, 

move, 
be moving, 
be moved. 

take. 

be taking. 

be taken. 



Singular. 



Perfect Tense. 



2. 
You 



He, She, or It, 
may, can, or 
been, been, been ; 

0. moved, moved, moved; ^ 

Pr. been moving, been moving, been movins 
P. been moved, been moved, been moved 
G. taken, taken, taken; 

Pr. been taking, been taking, been taking 
P. been taken, been taken, been taken ; 



1. 
We 

must have — 

been, 

moved, 
r ; been moving, 
; been moved, 

taken, 
; been taking, 

been taken, 



2. 
You 



Plural. 

3. 
They 



been, been, 

moved, moved, 

been moving, been moving, 

been moved, been moved, 

taken, taken, 

been taking, been taking, 

been taken, been taken. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. 

2. 3. 1. 

You He, She, or It, We 

might, could, would, or should have- 
bcen, been ; been, 

G. moved, moved, moved ; moved, _ 

Pr. been moving, been moving, been moving ; been moving, 
P beenmoved^ been moved, been moved; been moved, 
G. taken, taken, taken ; taken, _ 

Pr. been taking, been taking, been taking; been taking, 
P bee.'i taken, been taken, been taken ; been taken, 



1. 



been, 
moved, 





Plural. 


2. 


3. 


You 


They 



been, been, 

moved, moved, 

been moving, been moving, 

been moved, been moved, 

taken, taken, 

been taking, been taking, 

been taken, been taken. 



28 



VERBS. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense. 



Singular. 
2. 
C. Be, or be thou ; 
E. Do be, or do thou be ; 
G. Move, or move thou ; 
K Do move, or do thou move ; 
Pr. Be moving, or be thou moving ; 
P. Be moved, or be thou moved ; 
C. Take, or take thou ; 
E. Do take, or do thou take ; 
Pr. Be taking, or be thou taking ; 
P. Be taken, or be thou taken ; 

You is used in the singular, as well as thou: and in the plural it is quite as common 
as ye. When the imperative is to denote gentleness and entreaty rather than harshness 
and authority, you is perhaps preferable to thou. 



Plural. 
2. 
be, or be ye. 
do be, or do ye be. 
move, or move ye. 
do move, or do ye move, 
be moving, or be ye moving, 
be moved, or be ye moved, 
take, or take ye. 
do take, or do ye take, 
be taking, or be ye taking, 
be taken, or be ye taken. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present Infinitive. 

To be. 
G. To move. 
Pr. To be moving. 
P. To be moved. 
G. To take. 
Pr. To be taking. 
P. To be taken. 

Present Participle. 

Being. 

Moving. 

Taking. 



Perfect Infinitive. 

To have been. 

To have moved. 

To have been moving. 

To have been moved. 

To have taken. 

To have been taking. 

To have been taken. 

Perfect Participle. 

Been. 

Moved. 

Taken. 



Compound Participle. 

Neuter. Having been. 
Passive. Being moved. 
Active. Having moved. 
Passive. Having been moved. 
Passive. Being taken. 
Active. Having taken. 
Passive. Having been taken. 
To } the sign of the infinitives, is omitted after lid, make, need, hear, 
dare, in the active voice. 



let, see, feel, and 



ANCIENT FORM, OR SOLEMN STYLE —THOU. 





Thou 




art; 


a 

K 


movest, 
dost move, 


Pr 
P. 


art moving, 
art moved ; 


a 

K 
Pr 
P. 


takest, 
dost take, 
art taking, 
art taken. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Future. Perfect. Pluperfect.Future-perfect. 

Thou 
shalt or wilt have — ■ 
been ; 
moved, 



Thou 
hadst — 
been ; 
moved, 



Past. 

Thou Thou Thou 

shalt or wilt — ' hast — 
■wast, or wert ; be , been ; 

movedst, move, moved, 

didst move, 

wast moving, be moving, been moving, been moving, been moving, 
wast moved ; be moved ; been moved ; been moved ; been moved ; 
tookst, . take, taken, taken, taken, 

didst take, 

wast taking, be taking been taking, been taking, been taking, 
wast taken, be taken, been taken, been taken, been taken. 



VERBS. 



29 



Present. 

If thou 

be ; 
C. move, 
E, do move, 
Pr. be moving 
P. be moved ; 
C. take, 
J2. do take, 
Pr. be taking, 
P. be taken. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Past or Aorist. 

If thou 

wert, or were ; 

moved, 

did move, or didst move, 

wert moving, 

wert moved ; 

took, 

did take, or didst take, 

wert taking, 

wert taken. 



Pluperfect. 

If thou 
hadst — 
been; 
moved, 

been moving, 
been moved ; 
taken, 



We can also say, "Wert thou," "Wert thou moved," 
u Hadst thou moved ;" for, " If thou wert," " If thou hadst 



been taking, 
been taken. 
" Hadst thou been,' 1 
been," etc. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 



Present. 

Thou 
mayst, canst, 
or must — 
be ; 
C. move, 
Pr. be moving, 
P. be moved ; 
G. take, 
Pr. be taking, 
P. be taken. 



Past or Aorist. 

Thou 

miglitst, couldst, 
wouldst, or shouldst — 
be ; 
move, 
be moving, 
be moved ; 
take, 
be taking, 
be taken. 



Perfect. 

Thou 
mayst, canst, 
or must have— 

been ; 

moved, 

been moving, 

been moved ; 

taken, 

been taking, 

been taken. 



Pluperfect. 

Thou 
mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
or slwuldst hdve — ■ 
been; 
moved, 
been moving, 
been moved; 
taken, 
been takirg, 
been taken. 



The Ancient Form has the ending eth, in stead of s or es, in the third person 
singular ; and ye in stead of you, in the second person plural. 

Ex. — "Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath." — Shakespeare. " Ye 
are the salt of the earth."— Bible. 

Doth is used for the auxiliary does, and doeth for the verb does. Hatli and saith 
are contractions of haveih and say eth. 

How many and -what tenses has the indicative mood? — the subjunctive? — the potential ? 
— the imperative ? What participles are there ? — what infinitives ? 

In what mood and tense do you find do ? — did ? — have ? — had t— shall or will ? — shall or 
will have? — may, can, or must? — may, can, or must have? — might, could, would, or should? 
— might, could, would, or should have ? 

Does the subjunctive mood vary in its forms, through the different persons and numbers ? 
Can you show how some of its forms differ from the corresponding forms of the indicative 
mood ? 

Tell of what mood and tense ; then conjugate throughout the tense, beginning with the 
first person singular ;. — 

I imagine. He suffered. We have gained. I had been ploughing. I will visit. 
Were I. Had I been. If he were. Were I invited. Had I been invited. If I be 
invited. They shall have finished. I lay. We read. It may pass. You should 
have come. We may have been robbed. I was speaking. It is rising. You 
might be preparing. She had been singing. Had you been studying. Do you 
hope ? Did she smile ? If I do fall. If thou rely. Thou art. Art thou ? He 
forgiveth. Dost thou not forgive ? It must have happened. They are gone. Thou 
art going. We were proceeding. 

Predicate each of the following verbs correctly of thou ; then of he, and of they : — 
Am, was, have been, would have been, are deceived, had been, do say, did 
maintain, gave, touched, cast, amass, recommend, be discouraged, shall have been, 
will pardon, may have been rejoicing, was elected, should have been elected, 
wrapped, consider, considered, have been loitering. 



30 ADVERBS. 

Change into the ether tenses of the same mood : — 

I write, I may write, If I write, If I be writing, To write. 

Give the synopsis of the verb be, with the nominative I; — with you; — thou;— he; — vrn 

— THEY ? — THE MAN ;— THE MEN. 

In like manner give the synopsis of each of the following verbs : — 
Bind, arrest, have, do, be known, be proved, be conversing. 
Give thou with each auxiliary except be and its variations; — give he. 

6. ADVERBS. 

If I say, "He reasons correctly, speaks fluently, and persuades earnestly •" 
"Walk up, walk down, walk in, walk out, walk slowly, walk not f '•''Very tail, 
horribly ugly, sternly inquisitive, surprisingly abrupt, more ingenious, most elo- 
quent, very powerfully, quite fast ;" you see that the Italicized words tell hoiv, when, 
where, or to what degree, a thing is done ; also how or in what degree a quality or 
property exists ; and being most generally applied or added to verbs, they are 
called adverbs. 

What is an adverb t 

An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a 
verb ; an adjective, or an adverb. See above. 

Some entire phrases, as long ago, in vain, to and fro, by and by, the more, the 
less, sooner or later, are generally used as adverbs, and called adverbial phrases. 
Perhaps they may as well be called simply adverbs. 

We have said that adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs ; but what other parts 
do they souietiin.es modify? 

Phrases, entire sentences, and sometimes perhaps nouns or 
pronouns. 

Ex. — " He sailed nearly round the world" " The murdered traveller's bones 
were found far down a narrow glen." — Bryant. " Do you know him ? — No." " Can 
you not go ?" " Can not you go?" " The immortality of the soul has been evinced 
to almost a demonstration." — Addison. " And the fame hereof went abroad." — 

Bible, 

Whether an adverb, as such, may ever be said to modify a substantive, is questionable. 
But there is a difference, for instance, between l * Can you not go'?" and " Can not you go ?'* 
And sometimes the adverb seems to relate to the verb lurking in the noun. Perhaps it is 
best to parse such words, sometimes as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs modifying the 
verb with reference to the subject, the object, the adjunct, or ivliatever part is affected. 

If adverbs describe or limit as well as adjectives, can they also be compared ? 

Yes. 

How do they differ from adjectives in comparison? 

A smaller portion of them can be compared ; and they are 
more frequently compared by more and most, 

Ex. — Thus, we can say, " Slow, shiver, slowest j lively, livelier, liveliest": but 
we must say, " So, more so, most so ; wisely, more wisely, most wisely." 

What do most adverbs express ? 

Manner, Place, Time, or Degree. 

Ex. — Elegantly, well, merrily, gayly ; here, there; now, then; very, more, 
most. 

List of Adverbs. 

Since it is not unfrequently difficult to determine whether a given word 
adverb or not, or to what class of adverbs it should be referred, a full catalogue is 



ADVERBS. 31 

^riven below, which must be carefully and thoroughly studied. The classification, 
too, is more minute than it usually is ; because it is supposed that the nature and 
various powers of the adverbs may be better learned by this means. 

Manner, Mode, or Quality. How? 

So, thus, well, ill, how, wisely, foolishly, justly, slowly, somehow, anyhow, 
however, howsoever, otherwise, else, likewise, like, alike, as, extempore , head- 
long, lengthwise, crosswise, across, aslant, astride, astraddle, adrift, amain, afloat, 
apace, apart, asunder, amiss, anew, fast, together, separately, aloud, accordingly, 
agreeably, necessarily, in vain, in brief, at once, in short, foot by foot, so so, so 
and so, helter-skelter, hurry-skurry, namely, suddenly, silently, feelingly, sur- 
prisingly, touehingly, trippingly, lovingly, hurriedly, mournfully, sweetly, propor- 
tionally, exactly, heavily, lightly ; and many others ending in ly, and formed from 
? or present participles. 



Place. Where ? Whence ? Whither ? 

Of place absolute: Here, there, yonder, where, everywhere, somewhere, uni- 
versally, nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, anywhere, herein, therein, wherein, 
hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts, hereabout, thereabout, abed, aground, on 
high, all over, here and there. 

Of place reckoned from some point: Whence, hence, thence, elsewhere, other- 
where, away, far, afar, far off, out, remotely, abroad, above, forth, below, ahead, 
aloof, outwards, about, around, beneath, before, behind, over, under, within, with- 
out, from within, from without. 

Of place reckoned to some point: "Whither, thither, hither, in, up, down, up- 
wards, downwards, inwards, backwards, forwards, hitherwarcl, thitherward, home- 
ward, aside, ashore, afield, aloft, aboard, aground, nigh. — The forms upward ', 
downward, backward, &c, are also used as adverbs. 

Of order : First, secondly, thirdly, &c, next, lastly, finally, at last, in fine. 

Time. 4 When ? How long ? How often ? How soon ? How 
long^ ago ? 

Of time absolute : Ever, never, always, eternally, perpetually, continually, con- 
stantly, endlessly, forever, incessantly, everlastingly, evermore, aye. 

Of time relative, i. e., reckoned with, to, or from some other time : When, when- 
ever, then, meanwhile, meantime, as, while, whilst, till, until, otherwhile, after, 
afterward, afterwards, subsequently, before, late, early, betimes, seasonably. 

Of time repeated : Again, often, oft, oftentimes, sometimes, occasionally, sel- 
dom, rarely, frequently, now and then, ever and anon, daily, weekly, hourly, 
monthly, yearly, annually, anew, once, twice, thrice, four times, etc. 

Of time present : Now, to-day, nowadays, at present, yet (=heretofore and 
now), as yet. 

Of time past: Yesterday, heretofore, recently, lately, of late, already, for- 
merly, just now, just, anciently, since, hitherto, long since, long ago, ere while, 
till now. 

Of time future : Hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, soon, to-morrow, shortly, 
erelong, by and by, presently, instantly, immediately, straightway, straightways, 
directly, forthwith, not yet,*anon. 

Degree. How much? How little? To what extent ? 

Adverbs of degree are not easily classified ; for adverbs from several other classes may 
sometimes be used to express degree. The following adverbs, to the dash-line, are not all 
strictly adverbs of degree. 

Adverbs showing how much, to what extent, or in what degree : Much, more, most, 
greatly, far, further, very, too, little, less, least, extra, mostly, entirely, chiefly, 
principally, mainly, generally, commonly, usually, in general, fully, full, com- 
pletely, totally, wholly, perfectly, all, altogether, quite, exceedingly, extravagantly, 
immeasurably, immensely, excessively, boundlessly, infinitely, inconceivably, clear, 
stark, nearly, well-nigh, partly, partially, intensely, scarcely, scantily, precisely, 
enough, exactly, even, everso, just, equally, sufficiently, adequately, proportion* 
aiely, competently, as, so, how, however, howsoever, somewhat, at all. 



32 PREPOSITIONS. 

Of exclusion or emphasis : Merely, only, but, alone, simply, barely, just, particu- 
larly, especially, in particular. 

Adverbs implying something additional to what has been mentioned, or something 
beyond what might be expected : Also, besides, else, still, yet, too, likewise, withal, 
moreover, furthermore, however, extra, eke, even, nevertheless, anyhow. 



- Adverbs implying cause or means : Why, wherefore, therefore, hence, thence, 
consequently, accordingly, whereby, hereby, thereby. 

Of negation: Not, nay, no, nowise, noway, noways, by no means. 

Of affirmation or admittance : Truly, doubtless, undoubtedly, unquestionably, 
forsooth, indeed, well, very well, well then, yes, yea, ay, verily, surely, certainly, 
really, assuredly, certes, amen, of course, to be sure. 

Of doubt or uncertainty : Perhaps, probably, possibly, perchance, peradvent- 
ure, haply, mayhap, may-be. 

The adverbs of the last three classes are sometimes termed modal adverbs. 
They are said to show u the manner of the assertion." They have a more direct 
reference to the mind of the speaker than the others have. We may deny or re- 
fuse, hesitate, consent; disbelieve, doubt, believe; pass from strong negation 
through doubt into strong positive assertion, and vice versa. 

Expletive Adverbs. These serve merely to begin sentences, in order to render them 
less blunt or more sprightly ; as, There, well, why. 

Conjunctive Adverbs. These connect as well as modify. They are usually ad- 
verbs of time, place, or manner ; as, When, where, while, till, as, etc. 

Interrogative Adverbs. These are those adverbs of the foregoing classes, which 
are used to ask questions ; as, What ? where ? how ? whither ? 

Prom the foregoing list, it may be seen that the same word may sometimes 
be referred to one class of adverbs, and sometimes to another, according to its 
meaning. 

Ex. — "I have just come." (Time.) "It is just full;" i. e., neither more nor less. 
(Extent or degree.) 

It is supposed that the student, after having carefully studied the foregoing 
catalogue, will be able to refer any adverb not in it to its proper class. In parsing, 
when an adverb can not be easily referred to some special class, it may be more 
convenient to refer it to the general class to which it belongs, — to call it simply an 
adverb of manner, place, time, or degree. 

Will you mention six adverbs of manner ? — three of place where t — three of place 
whence ? —three of place whither ? — three of order ? — three of time absolute ? — three of time 
relative?— three of time repeated ? —three of time present? — three of time past? — three of 
time future? — six of degree? — three implying exclusion? — three implying something addi- 
tional? — three of cause ? — three of negation f— three of affirmation ?— three of doubt?— three 
expletive adverbs ? — six conjunctive adverbs ? — one interrogative adverb of manner, one of 
place, and one of time? — six adverbial phrases ? 

7. PREPOSITIONS. 

When I say, " The horses are in the ferry-boat, the ferry-boat is on the river, 
and the river is between the hills ; you see that the words in, on, and between, show 
how different objects are to one another. They are called propositions ; for the 
word means placing before, and these little words must generally be placed before 
nouns, to make the nouns capable of being used as descriptive words. 

What is a preposition ? 

A preposition is a word used to show the relation be- 
tween different things. 

Ex. — In, on, under, above, over, around, at, from, to, through. 

Two prepositions are sometimes combined, and some phrases are constantly 
used in the sense of prepositions. The former expressions may be called complex 
prepositions ; the latter, prepositional phrases ; or both may be termed simply pre- 
positions. See the List. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



33 



What does a preposition usually join to some other word or part of the sentence? 

A substantive denoting the place, time, doer ; possessor, 
cause, source, means, manner, or some other circumstance. 

Ex. — "The apples hang on the tree." " We have snow in winter.'''' "He 
was stabbed by a volunteer, with the sword or a Kentuckian." " To write with 
ease and rapidity. " 

What is an adjunct ? 

An adjunct is a preposition with its object, or with the 
w r ords required after it to complete the sense. See above. 

Is the preposition always expressed ? 

It is sometimes understood. 

Ex. — "Give him his book"=Give his book to him. " I stood near him" I 
stood near to him. " He is like his father" =He is like to or unto his father. 



List of Prepositions. 



A, 

aboard, 

about, 

above, 

across, 

after, 

against, 

along, 

amid, ) 

amidst, ) 

among, ) 

amongst, ) 

around, 

aslant, 

at, 

athwart, 



bating, 

before, 

behind, 

below, 

beneath, 

beside, ) 

besides, f 

between, 

betwixt, 

beyond^ 

but, 

concerning, 
despite, 
down, 
during, 



ere, 


respecting, 


up, 


except, 


round, 


upon, 


excepting, 


save, 


versus, 


for, 


saving, 


with, 


from, 


since, 


within, 


in, 


through, 


without. 


into, 


throughout, 




notwith- 
standing, 


till, 
to, 


Not CoinroN 


of, 


touching, 


Abaft, 


off, 


toward, ) 
towards, j" 


adown, 


on, 


afore, 


over, 


under, 


aloft, 


past, 
pending, 


underneath, 


alongside, 


until, 


aloof, 


per, 


unto, 


aneath, 



atween, 

atwixt, 

cross, 

dehors, 

inside, 

maugre, 

minus, 

outside, 

plus, 

sans, 

than, 

thorough, 

via, 

withal, 

withinside. 



Aboard of, as to, from betwixt, from out of, 

according to, because of, from beyond, from under, 

along with, from among, from off, out of, 

as for, from before, from out, round about. 

Gait you repeat the prepositions that begin with a? — b? — ct — dt — et—ft — it — nt 
o ?—p f—r f—s f—t t—u t—w t 



8. CONJUNCTIONS. 

When I say, " John and James write ;" " John writes and ciphers ;" " John 
writes fast and well ;" " John spilt his ink on the desk and on the floor ;" " John 
writes twice every day, and I generally lock at his writing;" you see that the word 
and brings on something more to what has been said, or joins together two words, 
two phrases, or two propositions ; and as conjunction means joining together, this 
word, and others like it, have been called conjunctions. 

What definition, then, may he given of a conjunction ? 

A conjunction is a word that joins something to an- 
other part of the discourse, and shows how the parts so con- 
nected are viewed with respect to each other. 

Ex. — " Grain will be cheap, and perhaps unsalable." " Grain will be cheap. 
for the harvest is abundaut." " Grain will be cheap, if the winter continue mild.'' 
" Grain will be cheap, but now it is dear." " He rides, if he is sick." " He rides, 

u " 



though he is sick." 



1 He rides, b sea-use he is sick." 
3 



84 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



Two conjunctions are sometimes combined, and certain phrases arc sometimes 
used in the sense of conjunctions : as, " His health, as well as his estate, is ruined : 
and yet he still persists in his course." The former expressions may be called 
complex conjunctions; and the latter, conjunctive phrases ; or both may be termed 
simply conjunctions. 

What is a coordinate conjunction ? 

A coordinate conjunction connects parts of equal rank, 

Ex. — And, but, or. " The woods are sprouting, and the dove is cooing." 
Here and connects clauses which do not depend on each other, and therefore they 
are said to be coordinate, which means of equal rank. 

What is a subordinate conjunction ? 

A subordinate conjunction connects parts of unequal 
rank. 

Ex.— If, that, since, because. " I will work for you, if you pay me." Here 
if connects two clauses, of which one depends on the other, and therefore the de- 
pendent one is said to be subordinate, which means ranking under. 

What is a corresponding or correlative conjunction? 

A corresponding 1 conjunction suggests another con- 
junction, and assists it in connecting the same parts. 

Ex.— "I will neither buy nor sell.' 7 "Though he reproves me, yet I esteem 
him." 

Can you mention the chief ideas conveyed by the different conjunctions in reference to 
the parts connected ? 

Addition, separation, contrariety, cause, consequence, pur- 
pose, condition, concession, and comparison. 

By examining the beginning of this section, what words would you infer may be con- 
nected by conjunctions ? 

Words of almost any part of speech. 

Where are conjunctions mostly used ? 

In connecting the parts of compound sentences. 

Are conjunctions ever understood? 

Sometimes they are ; and other words are generally under- 
stood after them. 



Ex.—" Kout, [fi 
had lost it." " Y( 



and] ruin, [and] panic, seized them all." "I knew [that] he 
ou may first read this sentence, and then [you may] parse it." 



How may adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions be distinguished, or what is the chief 
characteristic of each class ? 

Of the adverb, to modify or limit ; of the preposition, to 
govern a substantive in the objective case ; and of the con- 
junction, to connect. 

Ex. — "He took but one apple." "I saw all but him." "I saw him, but he 
would not come. 77 



List of Conjunctions. 



1. Conjunctions implying continuance or addition, simply or emphatically : And, 
as well as, again, also, besides, botii, moreover, furthermore, even, nay, so (=-also). 
(Copulative conjunctions.) 

2. Separation or choice : Or, nor, either, neither, or else. {Alternative or dis- 

? conjunctions.) 



nrrsBJBcrioNS. 35 

3. Contrariety, \ , or reservation : But, yet, still, however, howsoever, 
nevertheless, notwith . unless (=but not . . . if),- except cha Ad- 

tl8.) 

4. Comparison: Than, us. (Comparative conjunctions) 

Mthough, though, even if, even though, notwithstanding, albeit. 

'': If, unless (=if not), whether, pro ,vided that, 

in ease that, so, except, I 

or, sinee, a . ■-asrauch as, 

whereas. {Comal eon 
• 8. use: Then, so, therefore, wherefore. (IUatlve eon- 

9. Purpose or motive; That, so that, in order that, lest, so a3. 



10. Cor/'{>-/,on> ! usticfu: Either — or; neither — nor; whether — or; if- 

then ; though, or although — yet ; both — and ; as — so ; as — as. 



Conjunctions are sometimes accumulated, or take adverbial particles, merely to 
strengthen or * ly the "connection between the par'. 

phrases even, or adverbial particles, may be treated - .less 

great accuracy is required ; or else they may be analyzed more rigidly otherwise, 
especi [(plying such words as may be I 1 to have been 

omit* 

The conjunctions of the first three classes are chiefly ; the oth 

the tentii c ; <. ; . The former rather indi i >vementa and turns 

of thought; the latter subjoin parte that are used more or less in the sense of 

mtion two copal. dice conjunctions? — two alternative? (Pass thus through 
lb.,- List.; 

9. INTERJECTIONS. 

In every L .ere are certain word- a the mind is suddenly 01 

greatly ex ig feeling or sudden emotion; 

re called ' rown 

for they are so loosely combined with the other word- nee, that 

usng them. 

What is a m t 

An interjection is a word that ex a an emotion 

only, and is not connected in ruction with any other 

word. 

Ex.— : O ! oh ! ah ! hurrah! hail! adieu! u O Grave! where is 

thy victor are no more !" "PzIulw! 

never min 

re are interjections most frequently found, and what may aid us in discovering them? 

In] ad in oratory: they are generally followed by 

the exclamation-point. 

ie heart is susceptible of many different emotions or feelings, the interjeo- 
into various ela 

List of Interjections. 

1. welladay! 

2. iia ! 

3. Of turpi ar, or horror: Hah! : h'ra ! height strange ! in 

ney-dey! la! whew! zounds 1 eh! ah! <Ai'. hoity-t 



36 EXERCISES ON ALL 

4. Of contempt or aversion : Pshaw ! pish ! tut ! tush ! poh ! foh ! bah 1 humph ! 
faugh ! whew ! off ! begone ! avaunt ! 

5. Of exultation or approbation: Aha! ah ! hey ! huzzah ! hurrah ! good ! bravo'. 

6. Of attention or calling : Ho! lo! behold! look! see! hark! la! heigh-ho! 
soho ! hollo ! halloa ! hoy ! hold ! whoh ! halt ! 'st ! 

7. Of silence : Hush ! hist ! whist ! 'st ! aw ! inuin ! 

8. Of interrogating : Eh? hem, or h'ni? (The opposite of the preceding class.) 

9. Of detection : Aha ! oho ! ay-ay ! 

10. Of laughter rlla, ha, ha! he, he, he ! 

11. Of saluting or parting : Welcome! hail! all-hail! adieu! good-by! and per- 
haps good-day ! good-night ! good-morning ! good-evening ! 

It is difficult to make a satisfactory classification of interjections. Most of them 
are used with great latitude of meaning ; that is, in various senses. When the 
learner meets with an interjection, it is perhaps best that he should determine its 
meaning from the spirit of the sentence or discourse. 



If a man cultivates the earth, he may be styled a farmer; if the same 
man should engage in the business of buying and selling goods, a merchant; 
if in preaching the gospel, a preacher : even so the same word, according 
to its use, is sometimes of one part of speech, and sometimes of another. 

Ex.— "A Hack horse ;" " To black boots;" " Black is a color." 

The first black is an adjective ; the second, a verb ; and the third, a noun. 

Can you mention two interjections of grief ? — tico of joy ? (Pass thus through the List. 

10. EXERCISES ON ALL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The nouns, and why : — 

A green tree. A house of marble. Laura brought a fresh rose. The farmer 
ploughs his field. Love and fidelity are inseparable. Pompey being vanquished, 
Caesar returned triumphant to Eomc. The groves were God's first temples. Col- 
onel Thomas H. Benton died in the year 1858. 

The pear and quince lay squandered on the grass ; 

The mould was purple with unheeded showers 
Of bloomy plums ; — a wilderness it was 

Of fruits, and weeds, and flowers ! — Hood. 
*'Tis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter. Place me on Sunium's marbled 
steep. The rich man's joys increase the poor's decay. Learn the how and the 
why. You is a pronoun, -f- denotes addition. I like to skate. It would be non- 
sense for us to buy it. There was some Indian fighting in settling this country. 
Why he did not go, is obvious. I believe that the people of a republic may abuse 
their liberty, as well as a despot his power. (Believe what ?) 

Whether proper or common, and why : — 

Susan, girl, George, boy, Europe, country, day, month, Saturday, September, 
holiday, Christmas, river, Mississippi, mountains, Andes, island, Cuba, bird, black- 
bird, chain, Jane, Louis, Louisa, city, New York, year, 1860. General Alexander 
Hamilton, Montauk Point, *soil, hope, soul, poetry, president, Webster, Mrs. 
Amelia Welby, Thomson's Seasons, heaven, earth, sun, stars. Isabella and Fer- 
dinand, the queen and king of Spain, enabled Columbus to discover America. 
Prescott's Conquest of Mexico is worth a careful perusal. The Laurenses, the 
Sumpters, the Rutledges, and the Marions, — Americans all. The Bahamas and 
the Antilles. And Freedom shrieked — as Kosciusko fell, /is a pronoun. The 
rjronominals each, every, and either. The clamor of most politicians is but an ef- 
fort to get the ins out and the outs in. 

* The exercises following the stars, may be omitted or deferred. When able to cope with 
them, the pupil may try his learning and ingenuity upon them ; but they properly belong tc 
Part Second of a hook having the foregoing instructions as Part First. 



TIIE PARTS OF SPEECH. 37 

Tell whether collective, abstract, or material, and why : — 

*Tribe, nations, anger, pity, caucus, adversity, sand, navy, extent, party, party- 
spirit, bacon, company, wine, snow, coldness, corn, people, law, jury, commerce, 
clergy, science. 

The pronouns, and why ; what kind, and why :— 

He saw me. We love them. She deceived herself. Know thyself. When a 
dandy has squandered his estate, he is not apt to regain it. The lady who had been 
sick, received the peaches which were ripe. This is the same marble that you 
gave me, and it is the best that I have. Who came ? We bought only such mules 
as suited us. ( — the mules which — ) Love what is worthy of love. ( — the thing 
which- -) *This apple is neither yours nor mine, but hers. ( — your apple nor my 
apple, nut her apple.) By others' faults, wise men correct their own. {By other men's 
faults, etc.) rs one are completely happy. (So persons are — ) Our poetry, I be- 
lieve, and not our morals, has been worse than that of the Romans. ( — than the 
poetry of the Romans.) Who is he ? Which is he? What is he ? Do you know 
who he is ? Whatever comes from the heart, goes to the heart. Teach me what 
truth is. The girls love one another. 

The gender, and why : — 

Brother, seamstress, Julius, Julia, Hon, lioness, joy, contentment, master, mis- 
tress, parent, father, mother, child, son, daughter, ke, him, hymn, she, it, they, we, 
you, its, itself, himself, herself, ^person, man, woman, nation, party, game, partner, 
God, deity, divinity, angel, corpse, corns, ghost, spirit, writer, marquess, lady's 
hand, lady's-slipper, soul, steer, Turk, Jew, Jews, nothing, none, nobody, thyself, 
themselves, which, who, others, whatsoever, whose. John is a noun, and she is a 
pronoun. 

Spell the corresponding feminine : — 

* Administrator, instructor, tutor, director, hero, executor, gander, count, earl, 
emperor, sultan, duke, prophet, sir, Don, gentleman. 

Spell the corresponding 'masculine : — 

*Wife, queen, heiress, Josephine, lady, lass, maid, mis3, mistress, signora, 
marchioness, nun, Harriet, Frances, Joanna, hind, roe, spawner. 

The person, and why : — 

I, you, he, we, my, us, thee, yourselves, mine, thine, thyself, himself, them- 
selves, it, she, hers ; the drooping willow ; my dictionary ; your grammar ; her 
needle and thread ; Washington's birthday. 

My mother ! when I learned that thou wast dead, 
Say, wast thou conscious of the tears I shed ? 
Hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son, 
Wretch even then, life's journey just begun ? — Cowper. 
*I Joseph Rogers hold myself responsible. Mary, you are a lazy girl. We pas* 
sengers have poor fare. A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse ! Come, Peace 
of mind, delightful guest. And peace, Virtue, peace is all thy own. We are old 
acquaintances. You are quite a philosopher. I am the captain, sir. Well, my little 
friend, how fare the schoolboys ? The good man and woman are long since in their 
graves, who used to plan the welfare of us their children. 

Said I to myself, and myself said to me, 
" Take care of thyself, for none care for thee." 

Change into the other persons: — 

*John writes. The girls study. Henry, you may play. I Augustus would do 
so. Is Guatamozin to be burned on glowing coals? 

Number, and why : — 

Book, books, rose, roses, razor, partridge, friends, geese, lilies, family, scissors, 
mice, oats, key, letters, anger, love, swarm, ashes, honey, molasses, I, we, you, 
thou, him, they, this, these, that, those, several, eight, an eight, *one, ones, our, 
ours, my, stimulus, stimuli, cherubim, physics, mathematics, a, an, each man, 
either man, every man, neither road, two, a two, two twos, who, which, that, what* 
as, pens, reads, is, has, was demolished, a twin, a pair. 



38 EXERCISES ON ALL 

Spell the plural:— 

*Sofa, dogma, peninsula, lamina, minutia, vertebra, stigma, orb, cherub, critic. 
bed, feather-bed, crowd, noose, goose, simile, wife, fife, knife, wolf, staff, flagstaff, 
bluff, leaf, turf, hoof, handkerchief, egg } orang-outang, booth, tooth, eye-tooth, 
Randolph, sketch, alkali, cadi, rabbi, Missouri, lark, bell, acquittal, custom, lus- 
trum, forum, stratum, eulogium, nostrum, aphorism, pendulum, pen, stamen, oc- 
tagon, phenomenon, man, juryman, talisman, Mussulman, negro, tyro, trio, cameo, 
zero, buffalo, motto, canto, embryo, seraglio, torpedo, potato, cargo, palmetto, mu- 
latto, manifesto, Scipio, Plato, top, thunderclap, Philip, master, quartermaster, 
class, census, focus, genus, genius, iambus, ignoramus, axis, iris, duchess, series, 
trellis, ellipsis, ephemeris, oasis, apparatus, chorus, denarius, Rufus, Venus, Soc- 
rates, Gracchus, root, foot, fox, ox, six, sea-mew, gun, alley, ally, money, valley, 
city, Henry, cousin-german, court-martial, coming-in, out-pouring, Miss Sprague, 
Mr. Phinney, Lord Chancellor, Sir Walter Scott. 

Spell the singular : — 

* Appendices, arcana, antitheses, desiderata, series, virtuosi, nebulae, volcanoes, 
apostrophes, apparatus, ignes fatui. 

The noun or pronoun ; then the case, and why : — 

John found Mary's book, Lucy's lamb nips the grass. The sun illuminates 
the world. Pair blooms the lily. He wrote his name in his book. John shot some 
squirrels in your father's field. The Greeks were more ingenious than the Ro- 
mans. In peace, he was the gale of spring; in war, the mountain-storm. The 
plough, the sword, the pen, and the needle, — how mighty ! 
On that day of desolation, 

Lady, I was captive made ; 
Bleeding for my Christian nation, 
By the walls of high Belgrade. — Campbell. 
*Then rushed the steeds to battle driven. Sweet fountain, once again I visit 
thee. To venture in was to die. I know that you can learn. I hurt myself. I 
myself hurt him. Promising and performing are two different things. To be a 
busy-body is a mean occupation. A piece of candy ten inches long, is worth a 
dime. John Jones, — and what of him i 

Chiefs, sages, heroes, bards, and seers, 

That live in story and in song, 
Time for the last two thousand years 

Has raised, and shown, and swept along. — Anonymous. 
Bear witness, Greece ; thy living page 
Attest it many a deathless age. — Byron. 

Gender, person, number, and case : — 

My, he, she, it, they, us, our, yours, your, them, me, we, you, hers, its, your- 
self, ourselves, themselves, *who, whose, whom, what, which, whoever, others, 
one's, that, none, as. 

What is the nominative corresponding to — 

Me ? — us ? — thee ? — him ? — whom ? — her? — hers ? — them ? — themselves ? — her- 
self?— it? 

What is the objective corresponding to — 

I ?— thou ?— we ?— ye ?— he ?— she ?— they ?— who ? 

Form the compound pronoun : — 

My, our, thy, your, him, her, it, one, than, who, which, what. 

Spell the possessive singular; then the possessive plural, if the word can have it: — 
Sister,f John, day, Sparks, prince, horse, St. James, John Henry Thomson, ho, 

one, who, other, she, it, court-martial, brother-in-law, book-keeper, alumnus, 

alumna ; Allen and Baker ; Morris, the bookseller. 

Change into the other form, and notice the effect : — 

Ajax's shield. The company's control." The company's management. The doc- 
tor's treatment. God's love. Knowledge of the man. My friend's nomination* 

t Thus: S-i-s-sis — t-e-r-ppostrcyhe-e-tei's — Sister's, 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 39 

Augustus the Roman emperor's friend. Prentice's poems. Hope's pleasures. 
William's brother's wife's sister. Nature's, custom's, reason's, passion's strife. 
The rumor of the death of the wife of the President. 

Tell which are the pronouns, and their antecedents when it can be determined; also 
dispose of both nouns and pronouns in regard to case: — 

Liberty has God on her side. Let every man take care of himself. John, you, 
and I, must water our garden. Neither John nor James knows his lesson. Henry, 
you must study. He who created me, whose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal. 
And there her brood the partridge led. The two brothers love each other. All 
our pupils are kind to one another. We are prone to sin. Your situation is not 
such a one as mine. *Hail ! ye men of Altorf. Said William to Joseph, " I will 
go with you." Is the book yours, or mine ? Where is it, Jack, where is it ? It is 
easy to spend money. It rained the whole night. It was Henry that said it. You 
are very sick, and Tain sorry for it. You wrote to me, which was all you did. His 
praise is lost who waits till all commend. Take my advice, or that of your father. 
Whoever violates this rule, shall suffer the penalty. Tell me what you want. 
Who knows who he is ? Can you tell which is which ? Whom do you take me to 
be i I. know not who he is. I know not who the candidate will be ? Which is 
Shylock, and which is Antonio ? Whatever he undertakes, he performs. What- 
ever is, is right. What in me is dark, illumine ; what is low, raise and support. 
Whatever 1 am, I tremble to think what I may be. I hope what I say will have an 
effect upon him, and prevent the impression which what he says may have upon 
others. Select whatever man is most suitable. And if thou saidst I 'in not a peer, 
Lord Angus, thou hast lied ! 

Time writes no wrinkles on thine azure brow ; 

Such as creation's dawn beheld thee, such thou rollest now. — Byron. 

Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits, know. — Pope. 
Insert the nouns and pronouns that will preserve the sense, and make the expression full : — 
I have lost the letter you wrote. Who bets, should be willing to lose. The 
door opens to whoever knocks. I want such as hear me, to take warning. His 
principles are such as a good man should blush to own. His principles are those 
which a good man should blush to own. Whom she loves so much I never could 
fancy. Here are the marbles : take which is yours. 

The article, and why; whether definite or indefinite, and why : — 

The roses in the garden. The rose is a beautiful flower. A fish from the river. 
A daughter of a duke. The daughter of a duke. A daughter of the duke. A 
portrait of the notorious Barnum. 

Place the proper indefinite article before each of the following words or phrases : — 
*Arrow, yard, university, hundred, hostler, harpoon, heathen, hotel, humble 

request, hero, heroic poem, hexameter, habitual drunkard, eulogy, ewe, unit, 

union ; united people ; ubiquitous quack. 

The adjective, and why; whether descriptive or definitive, and why; and to what it 
belongs : — 

The blue sky. The sky is blue. An aspiring man. A modest and beautiful 
woman, with eyes bright, blue, and affectionate. The night grew darker and 
darker. That field has been in cultivation four years. The first car is not full, 
having but one man in it. The earth was green with grass, fresh with dew, ana 
bright with morning light. The rosy-fingered Morn. The star-pow T dered galaxy. 
*The apples boiled soft. Now fairer .blooms the rose. His hammock swung loose 
at the sport of the wind. He is asleep. Let me alone: I feel somewhat tigerish. 
The fear of being awkward makes us awkward. To be indolent in youth, is 
ruinous. 

Whether participial, proper, compound, distributive, demonstrative or definite, indefi' 
nite, numeral — and ichether cardinal or ordinal, — and why : — 

Every, each, this, that, yonder, any, one, four, fourth ; two men ; second man * 
tinkling bells ; howling winds ; African monkeys ; Pindaric verse ; two-edged 
6words ; one dollar for every two living white-feathered turkeys. 

Compare, of the- following adjectives, those which can be compared with propriety : — 
Wise, studious, near, good, evil, melodious, high, tuneful, saucy, eloquent, ex- 
pressive, lively, nimble, late, many, much, few, little, old, shallow-brained, glow- 



40 EXERCISES ON AXL 

ing, *knowing, accomplished, expert, half-finished, full, counterfeit, graceful, 
meagre, worthless, bottomless, fundamental, ornamental, vernal, green, sluggish, 
sun-burnt, free, first. 

Mention and spell the three degrees of comparison : — 

Strong, weak, light, gay, rough, nice, coarse, fierce, white, ripe, thin, slim, dim, 
fit, hot, fat, glad, big, droll, dry, sprightly, manly, gentle, feeble, able, idle, serene, 
discreet, severe, polite, sublime, intense, profound. 

Compare by using less and least : — 

Broad, convenient, confident, lively, troublesome, thick, joyful, sorrowful, ex- 
orbitant, exact, indulgent, handsome. 

Join suitable adjectives to each of the following nouns : — 

Moon, field, fountain, trees, garden, horse, willow, man, woman, mule, pen, 
ink, day, wood, boys, thoughts, feelings, actions, "conduct. 

The verbs, and why ; — 

The sun rises. Hope deceives us. Saddle your horse. Bees collect honey. 
Honey is collected by bees. The bird flutters. The trees wave. The workmen 
have built the house. The Indians bound their prisoners. The prisoners were 
bound. Pinks are fragrant. The thunder was rolling. Lips, however rosy, must 
be fed. The mill can not grind with the water that has passed. Think or ease, 
but work on. Eiches are got with pain, kept with care, and lost with grief. We 
are loved for our gifts, but respected for the use we make of them. 

The participles and the infinitives, and why : — 

Planting, planted, being planted, having planted, having been planted, to plant, 
to be planted, to be planting, to have planted, to have been planted, to have been 
planting. Columbus became wearied and disheartened by impediments thrown in 
his way. The Indians fled, leaving their mules tied to the bushes. We saw the 
sun rising. We saw the sun rise. — When my eyes shall be turned to behold, for 
the last time, the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dis- 
honored fragments of a once glorious Union ; on States severed, discordant, and 
belligerent ; on a land rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, with fraternal 
blood ! — Webster. 

Give the principal parts, and tell whether the verb is regular or irregular: — 
Form, attack, strip, deny, bow, sow, grow, sew, sin, win, spin, authorize, crit- 
icise, skim, swim, heal, steal, fling, bring, spread, dread, twit, sit, fit, hit, die, lie, 
mold, hold, close, lose, choose, blind, find, fine, spurn, burn, reel, feel, blend, 
rend, lend, loan, tend, tent, need, feed, blight, fight, wink, drink, slink, sneak, 
speak, steep, sleep, cleave, weave, leave, reach, teach, fret, get, let, set, whet, 
6mut, put, agree, free, see, flee, fly, cry, spite, bite, write, take, make, bake, bare, 
dare, stray, pay, slay, trick, click, stick, call, fall, fell, bind, bound, grind, ground, 
heat, eat, roam, come, welcome, hold, uphold, withhold, give, misgive, undergo, 
undo, counteract, say, gainsay, will, shall, have, may, can, land, stand, am, be, 
rise, raise, tell, swell, spell, quell, lie, lay, sit, seat, set. 



Give, in the order of the Conjugation, th participles, then the ifij 
*Move, rise, spring, degrade, growl, find, conclude, undermine, reinstate, write, 
invigorate, bleed, overwhelm, drown, weave, see. 

Tfie verbs, and whether transitive, passive, intransitive, or neuter, and ichy : — 
The horse carries his rider. The horses are hitched to the wsigon. The water 
turned the wheel. The wheel was turned by the water. Mary reads. The book 
is read. The man kicked the horse. The man was kicked by the horse. The 
horse kicks. Such as I am, I have always been, and always shall be. To teach, 
having taught, having been taught, to have been taught. *Since these men could 
not be convinced, it was determined that they should be persecuted. He talks well. 
He talks nonsense. If he thinks as he speaks, he may be safely trusted. If you 
are able to help, wait not to be asked. He seated himself. He sat in a corner. He 
set a trap for partridges. Lay the book whore it lay before. Your leaders hissed 
their indignation, a id shouted — " Kiel I" The workmen are building the house. 
The house is building. Our chains are forging. Green maple cuts easily. An as 
to grind. He was never heard of afterwards." 






THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 41 

Air, water, earth, 
By fowl, fish, beast, was flown, was swum, was walked. — Milton. 

Change the following sentences so as to make the active verbs passive, and the passive 
verbs active : — 

The sun adorns the world. Indolence produces misery. My neighbor has 
planted some apple-trees. The dog bit the stranger. The distance was measured 
by a surveyor. .Morse invented the telegraph. The boat was built by Lucas. The 
lawyer should pay the debt. Can the river be forded at this place, by a man on 
horseback ? *He paid for the carriage. The ministers speak of peace. He was 
expected to strike. He saw and conquered. He knows to govern. To write, to 
smoke ; drying. 

The verb ; then the auxiliary, what it implies, and wliat mood and tense it expresses : 
John can read. Mary may write. Die I must. He does improve rapidly. Do 
you know him ? The sun has risen. The thief had left the tavern when his pur- 
suers came. I have a knife, and it is sharp. You shall obey me. Ye will not 
come, that ye may have life. He would not learn himself, nor could he teach 
others. *I will come if I can. It should not be, and it shall not be. He will go, 
if it should be necessary. Whoever shall desert, shall be hanged. Whoever would 
desert, should be hanged. They were to sail with Columbus, m whatever direction 
he should be sent by royal command. - May God ever protect the right. 

The verbs ; then the mood, and why : — 

William is writing. The rosemary nods on the grave, and the lily lolls on the 
wave. He caught some fish. It will rain this evening. I may command, but you 
must obey. He could and should have assisted us, but he would not. Do not 
value a gem by what it is set in. If William study, he will soon know his lesson. 
If wishes were horses, beggars would ride. Train up a child in the way he should 
go ; and, when he is old, he will not depart from it. The violet soon will cease to 
smile, the whippoorwill to chant. Whatever thy hands find to do, do it with all 
thy might. Discovered and surprised, he started up. May you be happy. If you 
are disappointed, blame not me. If you be disappointed, blame not me. If I were 
you, I would sell. *If the mail has come, bring my letters. He would rob others, 
if there were no law to restrain him. O, that he were wiser. He is as merry as if 
nothing were troubling him. If the line is drawn bisecting the angle, the seg- 
ments are equal. If the line be drawn bisecting the angle, the segments will be 
equal. This government will fall, if it lose the confidence of the people. This 
government would fall, if it lost the confidence of the people. This government 
would have fallen, had it lost the confidence of the people. Had you forborne, 
you had still been happy. Turn we now to another part. Let us now turn to an- 
other part. Heaven defend me from that Welsh fairy. Be it so. Say they who 
can advice. Somebody call my wife. 

The verbs ; then the tense, and why ; — 

Billows are murmuring on the hollow shore. Hushed now are the whirlwinds 
that ruffled the deep. The rose seemed to weep for the buds it had left. The 
storm had ceased before I reached a shelter. The storm ceased before we reached 
a shelter. A guilty conscience needs no accuser. He who is a stranger to indus- 
try, may possess, but he can not enjoy. Men must be taught as if you taught 
them not. How dense and bright yon pearly clouds reposing lie. Then thou shalt 
find that thou must lose thy life. It would have grieved your heart to see the 
sight. He sank exhausted on the bloody field. Strike ! for the green graves of 
your sires. Honor thy father and thy mother. Hallowed be thy name. I may 
have made some mistake. I had heard that the spirit of discontent was very preva- 
lent here ; but with pleasure I find that I have been grossly misinformed. Had 
the Turkish empire then risen in opposition, it could not, at that moment, have 
deterred them. Your character will have been formed at the age of twenty. He 
is supposed to have written the book. I said, Go ; and he went. If it were really 
so, then I would say, Quit your business. Having received an invitation, he was 
expected to come. I had to sell it. I had rather sell it. I would rather sell it. As 
soon as I have learned my lesson, I will play with you. 

Now change the verbs in some of the foregoing sentences into all the other moods, then 
into all the other tenses. 



42 EXERCISES ON ALL 

The verbs ; then the forms, and why : — 

Twilight is weeping o'er the pensive rose. As we were coming home, we saw 
a most beautiful rainbow. It does amaze me. Ye know not what ye say. Learn- 
ing taketh away the barbarity of men's minds. Gone, forever gone, are the lovely 
visions of youth. 

The verbs; and of what 'person and number, to agree with- : — 

I study. We write. He stutters. Grass grows. They were. You might im- 
prove. Thou art the man. It is. Ye are. Thou hast been. The wind has risen. 
Cows are lowing. The cricket chirps. Sing, heavenly Muse. Seek we the shade. 
It is i. It is they. I myself saw him. The general himself was slain. *Down 
went the ship and her gallant crew. Down went the ship, with her gallant crew. 
The public are invited. The colony was injured by civil dissensions. Many a 
man has been rained by speculation. Be it enacted. John, bring me some water. 
Rise, and defend thyseif. To complain is useless. What signifies your complain- 
ing ? It is useless to complain. Is it he? • There are some persons at the door. 
Either your horse or mine is gone. Neither the woman nor her child was hurt. 
Thou or I am to blame. He, as well as I, is to blame. 

Conjugate each of the following verbs, beginning with the first person svngular, and 
stopping with the subject : — 

The boy learns. (Thus: Singular, 1st person, I learn; 2d person, You learn; 
3d person, IIe } or the boy, learns.) The leaves are falling. Flowers must fade. Jane 
reads. Jane and Eliza read. Jane or Eliza reads. The lands may have been sold. 
The horse has been eating. The horses have been fed. 

Conjugate fully the verbs rule, permit, carry, strike, see. 

The verbs ; regular or irregular ; transitive, passive, intransitive, or neuter ; mood, 
tense, and form ; person and number, — and why : — 

He reads. We have slept. She died. Were we surpassed ? Were we surpassed. 
You had seen. Had you seen ? Take care, lest thou lose it. My time might have 
been improved better. The strawberries are ripening. I wish I were a careless child. 
Now, now, while my strength and my youth are in bloom, 
Let me think what will serve me when sickness shall come, 

And pray that my sins be forgiven : 
Let me read in good books, and believe and obey, 
That, when Death turns me out of this cottage of clay, 
I may dwell in a palace in heaven. — Watts, 

Tlie adverbs ; of what hind, and what they modify : — 

Now, wisely, here, there, forwards, always, sometimes, very, long ago; wonder- 
fully made ; too fast ; rather slender. The horse runs swiftly. God is everywhere. 
Never before did I see her look so pale. These things have always been so. You 
do not know him a.s well as I do. I just now saw him here. He read aloud. The 
hall was brilliantly illuminated, and densely crowded with hearers. He is poor 
enough that is not loved. Play is good while it is play. Perhaps you have not 
noticed quite all the adverbs in the sentence which I have just read. The women 
especially were well provided for. Your book is more beautiful ; mine is more 
useful. I have been too idle heretofore ; but henceforth I will study more dili- 
gently. **Not to us, but to thy name, be all the praise. However pleasant it 
may be, we can tarry no longer. The cooler the water, the better I like it. There 
lived a man whose name was Dan. Secondly, there is no honorable way of retreat- 
ing. Why, off again ? I consulted him once or twice ; not oftener. Did you ever 
* tell a lie ? — No, indeed. The flowers are no more. We have marched not quite 
far enough as yet perhaps. The monkey at once took up the violin, and tried it 
all over, but could not find where the tune lay. And thou hast hob-a-nobbed with 
Pharaoh, glass to glass. 

Compare : — 

Late, soon, early, much, little, well, ill, long, far, proudly, heroically, partic- 
ularly. 

Mention the corresponding adverb : — 

True, new, sure, good, glaring, studious, ardent, bad, patient, noble, gentle, 
lazy, profuse, slavish, richer, richest, plainer, severest, ^necessary, graphic, critic, 
order, grammar, history, arithmetic, algebra. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 43 

With, vigor ; in a careless manner ; without care ; "with pride ; "with scorn ; in 
what place ; from what place ; from what cause ; in this place ; in that place ; in 
this manner; in such a manner; to that place ; in all places ; at all times ; at the 
present time ; as occasion requires ; to such a degree ; in a higher degree ; in the 
lowest degree ; in any degree whatever (=at all) ; into equal parts ; without 
doubt; it may be that; in an instant j at that time ; at what time ; one time ; in 
the second place ; at whatever time ; m whatever place ; from instinct ; for the 
future ; by the year. 

What phrases correspond to the following adverbs : — 

Modestly, properly, angrily, disdainfully, here, there, where, hither, thither, 
whither, hence, thence, whence, now, then, when, yet, monthly, successively, 
successfully, twice, amen, more forcibly, most harmoniously. 

The prepositions, and between what they shoio the relation : — 

Flowers are growing along the rivulet. Above, around, and beneath him were 
clouds. I saw him, through the window. The bear was attacked by the dogs, 
and chased through the cane-brake into the river. My dinner is in my basket un- 
der the bench. Beneath the oak he acorns in abundance. There was a sound of 
revelry by night. By assisting me, you will confer a great favor on me. It hap- 
pened since morning, and before eleven o'clock. He came from beyond Jordan. 
He was rowing up the river ; but I, down. 

Change the adjuncts into adjectives : — 

These are productions of nature. He is a man of honesty and industry. This 
is a garden for the use of the kitchen. A fellow without worth. The orphan 
without friends. The gate of the prison. 

Change the relative clauses into adjuncts, then the adjuncts into adjectives : — 
The man who is temperate, will live long. The horse which ran most swiftly, 
fell over a precipice that is very high. The trees which bloom earliest, are gen- 
erally the first that die. 

Change the adjuncts into adverbs : — 

They advanced with caution. Arrayed in splendor. Fast in a moderate de- 
gree. Collecting with rapidity. At this time. Let me tell you for what reason. 

Expand into adjuncts : — 

Worldly cares. Ethereal realms. A hazel thicket. Skillfully performed. 
Neatly dressed. Spread profusely. Plashing clouds thundered afar. 

The conjunctions, what they imply, and ichat they connect : — 

And, also, because, since, yet, but, however, if, though, that, unless, inasmuch 
as, notwithstanding, or, nor. You must study, if you would be wise. I did not, 
because I could not. John is industrious, but Charles is indolent. He is neither 
learned nor naturally sagacious. I will either come or send. Unless you are 
economical, you will never become rich. 'Tis true, but yet in vain. 

Tlve interjections, and of what kind : — 

O ! oh ! alas ! welcome ! hail ! ho ! ah ! tush ! hurrah ! Deluded hopes ! — oh, 
worse than death ! Tut ! such aristocracy. La you ! if you speak ill of the 
Devil, how he takes it at heart ! Aha ! caught at last. Adieu ! adieu ! dear 
native land. 

Tell of what part of speech each icord is, and show its relation to the other words: — 
The storms of time that prostrated the proudest monuments of the world, 
seemed to have left their vibrations in the still, solemn air; ages of history passed 
before me ; the mighty processions of nations, kings, consuls, emperors, empires, 
and generations, had passed over that sublime theatre. — Travels in Italy. 
'Tis the star-spangled banner ! O, long may it wave 
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. — Key. 
And there lay the rider distorted and pale, 
With the dew on his brow and the rust on his mail. — Byron. 

Supply the words omitted :— 

A man and woman were drowned. You may write, and then cipher. Give 
him his book. He is like you. A book of my sister's. John knows more than 



44 EXILES OF SYNTAX. 

Rufus. The first tree and the fourth are dead. I shall call for you at Smith's. 
You have the horse I want. Let it be. .Arm, soldiers ! How now, Tulal ; what 
news from Genoa? Sweet the pleasure, rich the treasure. Strange indeed, ho 
should have known me ! Will you go there ? — I go there ? Never. Soon ripe, 
Boon rotten. 

Change the position of the words, without changing the meaning : — 
After a painful struggle, I yielded to my fate. Sweet songs were heard the 
leafy dells along. Me glory summons to the martial scene. Various, sincere, 
and constant are the efforts of men to produce that happiness which the mind 
requires. 

Tell which is the subject, and which is the predicate : — 

Birds sing, The grass is growing. The bird has been singing. The clothes 
will have been dried. Eead. Hark ! they whisper ; angels say, Sister-spirit, come 
away. The sun shines and warms. The sun and moon shine. 

TJie entire subject and the entire predicate ; then the subject-nominative and by what 
modified, and the predicate-verb a?id by what modified: — 

The dog barks. The dog is watchful. The dog is a quadruped. An angry bee 
stings. The soul can not die. The parrot is a noisy bird. Gold is the miser's 
delight. A lamp without oil is useless. Her eyes are blue. The reed bends un- 
der the wind. The leaves fall off. The passengers crossed the mountains, on 
mules. A servant comes running. The thrush sings merrily in the morning, from 
the top of the tree. The sick man needs a physician. The man who is sick, needs 
a physician. There is now offered you an opportunity to see your uncle. 

Point out the clauses : — 

If we must fail, be it so-, but we shall not fail. 

Because I eat and drink without luxury, banishing all foreign superfluity ; be- 
cause I dress myself in a way at once comfortable, and pleasing to the eye ; because 
I reinstate the manly beard in its lost honor; because I withstand privileges and 
prejudices, and would r>ass for no more than I am worth ; because I will not estab- 
lish my character by a duel, or bear about the insignia of real or feigned services ; 
because I forswear deceit, and assert the truth without fear, — am I therefore to be 
treated, in the nineteenth century, as a fool ? 



11. RULES OF SYNTAX. 

THE RELATIONS OF WORDS TO ONE ANOTHER, IN THE STRUCTURE C& 

SENTENCES. 

Words are used to express thoughts ; but every thought requires two 
or more words to be associated or grouped together, in order to express 
it Almost every word, therefore, is so made or modified, or is of such a 
nature ; that it looks to some other word for complete sense, and would 
be as unmeaning and useless by itself as a detached piece of a steam- 
engine. 

Ex. — " The white house gleaming on yonder hill, was built long ago for me 
and my family to livo in it." The relates to house,' showing that some particular 
one in meant; white relates to house, describing it; lwv.se relates to was bud f , 
the thi ming relates to house, describing it ; on relates to gleam- 

ing and hill, showing where; hill relates to on, showing on what ; was built, 
relates to house, showing what is said of it; long ago relates to was buill, show- 
ing when ; for relates to was built and me and my family, showing the purpose; 
me o elates to for ; and connects me and family, showing thai the 

two are to bo take a together ; my relates to family, showing what family; to 
live relates to me ana family, showing what we do; in relates to it and to live. 



c 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 45 

showing where ; and it relates to hoiise as the thing meant, and to in as do- 
noting where. This illustration may teach you, to some extent, what the fol- 
lowing Rules mean. 

j&aF* To illustrate the relations or offices of words still better, the teacher may do well to write on 
the blackboard, in connected or detached order, the foregoing sentence, and the most suitable of the 
sentences which accompany the following Rules; and then join the related parts by connecting lines 
drawn above or below. ^ 

Eule I. — A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a ] 
finite verb j must be in the nominative case. J 

Ex.— "Be is.*' "They are." "/am." " We are." "Thou dar'st not." " The 
man ivho is industrious, can earn what he needs." "/ have less than he (has)." 
"To lie is disgraceful." 

Eule II. — A noun or pronoun used independently or ab- 
solutely, must be in the nominative case. 

Ex. — Independently: "Go, Tubal, go." "Plato, thou reasonst well." " Three 
thousand ducats / 'tis a good round sum." " To be — or not to be, — that is the 
question!" "The Pilgrim Fathers, — where are they?" "My banks they are 
furnished with bees." " Worcester's Dictionary, Unabridged." Ab solutely : 
"The coat fitting, I bought it." "To become a thorough scholar, requires great 
application." " No one suspected his being a foreigner. 1 '' 

Eule III. — A noun or pronoun that limits the meaning 
of another by denoting possession, must be in the possessive 
case. 

Ex. — " John's horse." That is, not any horse, but the one that belongs to 
John. "Sir Walter Scoffls works." " Whose book is it, if not mine [=my book] ? 
"Smith's [store] and Barton's store." "Smith, Allen, and Barton's store." "Call 
at Smith's, the bookseller.'''' That is, at Smith's house or store. " The captain of 
the Neptune's wife." 

Eule IV. — A noun or pronoun used as the object of a trans- 
itive verb in the active voice, must be in the objective case. 

Ex. — "I saw him, and he saw w." " Whom did you hit?" "David slew 
Goliath.''' " Most children like to play — like skating and sleighing.''' " Do you 
know how to do it f" "No one knows how much he is in debt." "By heading 
good books, you will improve." 

Eule V. — A noun or pronoun used as the object of a prep- 
osition, must be in the objective case. 

Ex. — " It was sent by me to him." That is, we could not say, when speaking 
correctly, It was sent by /to he. "An apple for a peach." "By reading in 
good books, you will improve." 

Eule VI. — A noun or pronoun used without a governing 
word, but modifying like an adverb or adjunct some other 
word, must be in the objective case. 

Ex. — " The street is a mile long, and forty feet wide." " The horse ran six 
miles." "The knife is worth a dollar." "The amphibious thing now trips a 
lady, and now struts a lord." — Pope. " I do not care a straw." "He is nothing 
too good for it." " The milk is a little sour." 

Eule VII. — A noun or pronoun that does not bring an- 
other person or thing into the sentence, and is used merely for 
explanation, emphasis, or description, must be in the same 
case as the noun or pronoun denoting the person or thing. 



46 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Ex. — " The stranger was your friend, he that afterwards became my instructor." 
" Taxes, endless taxes, are the consequences of corruption." " He struts a dandy." 
" They made him captain.''' 1 " He was made captain." 

Eule VIII. — The relative what, and other expressions of 
the same kind, may have a twofold construction in regard 
to case. 

Ex. — " I took what suited me. 77 " Whoever sins, will suffer." " Take which- 
■ ever horse you like." " The lion will kill whatever man touches him." 

Rule IX. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, 
in gender, person, and number. 

Ex. — " Thomas found his dog with Henry's dogs, and they^ were all chasing a 
deer which had leaped out of the wheat-field. The antecedent is the substantive in 
reference to which the pronoun is used; as, "Mary lost her book." Here Mary 
is the antecedent of her. It is not necessary to apply the Eule, unless it is definitely 
known what the antecedent is. 

Rule X. — An article or an adjective belongs to the 
substantive to ivhich it relates. 

Ex. — A r tides : " Bring a rose from the garden." " A gardener's wages." 
" Once upon a summer's day?' " A noun and pronoun." " The house and lot." 
" An industrious people, having a great many curious inventions." Adjec- 
tives: " This apple is ripe." " The truly good [people] are happy." " The ap- 
ples boiled soft." " To live comfortably, is desirable." (What is desirable ?) 

Note X. — An adjective is sometimes used absolutely after a preceding 
participle or infinitive. 

Ex. — " To be good is to be happy." " The dread of being poor." 

Rule XI. — A finite verb must agree ivith its subject, in 
person and number. 

Ex.— "He is." "They are." " Thou art." "lam." " Tea and silk are 
Drought from the East." " A week or a month soon passes away." " Our people 
are enterprising." " No nation is at war with us." " Believe [thou] and obey." 
" To write ten lines a day,| is sufficient." " That so many are ruined in large cities, | 
is owing to bad examples." 

Note XI. — In a few peculiar expressions, finite verbs are used without 
a suitable subject, or without any subject. 

Ex.— " Methinhs." 

" Forthwith on all sides to his aid was run 
By angels many and strong." — Milton's P. Z., B. VI. 
And perhaps, " God said, Let us make man in our own image." 

XII. — A participle or an infinitive relates to a noun or 
pronoun as its subject; and the infinitive may besides modify 
the meaning or complete the construction of some other loord 
or part of the sentence. 

Ex. — " We I walked out to see the moon rising." "A mountain so high as to be 
perpetually covered with snow." A noun or pronoun, used as such a subject, may 
be either in the nominative case or in the objective case ; and it denotes the object 
to which the act or state belongs. 

Note XII. — A participle or an infinitive is sometimes used absolutely 
or independently. 



PARSING. 47 

Ex. — " Generally speaking, young men are better for business than old men are." 
" To go about, seeking employment, is irksome." u But, to proceed: It has been fre- 
quently remarked," etc. " Every man has, so to speak, several strings by which he 
may be pulled." But suitable words can generally be supplied, to avoid the neces- 
sity of using this Note. 

Eule XIII. — An adverb belongs to the word, phrase, or 
-proposition, which it modifies. 

Ex. — u A most beautiful horse galloped very HKpidly up the road." 

Note XIII. — A conjunctive adverb joins on something that usually 
expresses the time, place, or manner, or that is used in the sense of an adverb 
an adjective, or a noun. 

Ex. — "Go when you please." "The grave where our hero was buried." "I 
know how you got it." 

Remark: XIII. — An adverb appears to be sometimes used independently. 

Ex. — u Well, I really don't know what to do." " Why, that is a new idea.' 7 
Adverbs thus used partake somewhat of the nature of conjunctions and interjec- 
tions. 

Eule XIV. — A preposition shoios the relation of an an- 
tecedent term, to a subsequent term in the objective case. 

Ex. — "The trees most beautiful in spring, blossomed along the bank on the 
other side of the river." " He took the slate from me and him, and gave it to her 
for whom he had bought it." Antecedent means going before; subsequent means 
following : the terms are visually so arranged, unless inverted, which sometimes 
happens. The antecedent term maybe a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a verb, an 
adverb, or even a phrase ; the subsequent term must oe a substantive. 

Eule XV. — Conjunctions connect clauses or sentences ; 
and also words or phrases in the same construction. 

Ex. — " And there lay the rider distorted and pale," 

" Weeds and briers now grow in the field, because it is not cultivated. 

Eule XVI. — Interjections have no grammatical con- 
nection with other words. 

Can you repeat Rule 1st f — 2d f — 3d f-4th t—6th ?—6th t—lth t—Sth ?—9th ?—10th f— 
11th t—mh ?—Vith f—Uth t—lUh f—lQth t 

12. PARSING. 

General Formula. — The part of speech, and why ; the kind, and why ; 
the properties, and why ; the relation to other words, and according to 
what Rule. 

Articles. 

Formula. — An article, and why ; . e % n l \ [• and why ; to what it belongs, 

and according to what Rule. 

" The river." 

" The" is an article, — a word placed before a noun to show how it is applied ; 
dejinite, it shows that some particular river is meant ; and it belongs to " river," ac- 
cording to Rule X : "An article belongs to the substantive to which it relates. 1 ''* 

" River" is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a name common to all objects of 
the same kind ; neuter gender, it denotes neither a male nor a female ; third person, 
it represents an object as spoken of; singular number, it means but one. 

* Tt is not necessary, in parsing, to repeat it a Rule more than the ^xampV. -squires. 



48 PARSING. 

In like manner parse the following phrases : — 

The man. The men. A rose. An arrow. 

The horse. The horses. A melon. An island. 

The child. The children. A university. An uncle. 

"A man's hat.*' 

"A"i& an article, — a word placed before a noun to show how n is applied ; in- 
definite, it shows that no particular man is meant, and it belongs to "man's" ac- 
cording to Eule X. (Eepeat it.) 

"Man's" is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a generic name; masculine gen- 
der, it denotes a male; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular 
number, it means but one ; and in the possessive case, it limits the meaning of "hat" 
according to Eule III. (Eepeat it.) 

11 Hat" is parsed like "river." 

In like manner parse the following phrases : — 

A neighbor's farm. The sun's splendor. 

An Indian's hatchet. The boy's book. 

A teamster's whip. The boys' books. 

A lady's fan. Women's fancies. 



Adjectives. 

descriptive, 



Formula.— An adjective, and why; fcfaitive S and why; whether com ' 
pared or not, and how ; the degree, and why ; to what it belongs, and accord- 
ing to what Eule. 

" A beautiful morning." 

"Beautiful" is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a 
substantive; descriptive, it describes or qualifies the morning; compared pos. 
beautiful, comp. more beautiful, superb most beautiful; in the positive degree, it 
ascribes the quality simply ; and it belongs to " morning," according to Eule X. 
(Eepeat it.) 

"All men." 

Formula. — An adjective, and why ; the kind, and why ; to what it belongs, 
and according to what Eule. 

" All" is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a sub- 
stantive ; definitive, it limits or modifies the meaning o£" men;" and it belongs to 
"men," according to Eule X. (Eepeat it.) 

Parse the following phrases : — 1. 

A* ripe melon. An early riser. The black-winged redbird. 

A dark night. An older man. The red-winged blackbird. 

The dearest whistle. The whitest rose. The fairest lady. 

2. 

Delightful scenery. A most b ingenious story. 

Flowery meadows. The most b eloquent preacher. 

Elegant furniture. The less b objectionable place. 

A more b beautiful day. The least b troublesome servant. 



PARSING. 49 



The obedient, kind, cheerful, and* The besi gift. 

industrious pupil. John's bay horse. 

A large, black, and b fiery The worst condition. 

cloud. The last interview. 

A man bold, sensible, sensitive, A good boy's mother. 

proud, energetic, and b ambitious. Webster's most 5 eloquent speech. 

4. 

Yonder house. Each pupil. Ground corn. 

This tree. Such a person. Every fourth man. 

That barn. Purling streams. Those two benches. 

These trees. Whispering breezes. The lawyer's own case. 

Twelve* Spartan virgins, noble, young, and fair, 
With violet wreaths adorned their flowing hair.- — Dry den. 

{a.) "A" shows that no particular '' ripe melon" is meant, (b.) To be omitted in parsing. 
<*) Parse the adjectives and the nouns. 

Nouns. 

Formula. — A noun, and why; ^^?X, r aa( * W ^J] collective, and why: 

CO I fO Ob wlh, \ 

gender*, and why; person, and why; number, and why ; co.se, and Rule. 
" Snow is falling." 

"Snow" is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a generic name ; neuter gender, it 
denotes neither male nor female ; third person, it represents an object as spoken 
of; singular number, it means but one ; and in the no m native case — it is the sub- 
ject of 'the verb is falling — according to Eule I. (Eepeat it.) 

Parse the articles, the adjectives, and the nouns :-— 

1. 

David slew G-oliath*. Mr. Holmes taught Henry* arithmetic*. 

Cattle eat grass. With Sarah's pen. 

Cats catch mice. James the coachman is sick. 

Across the road b . The poet Milton was blind. 

Around the fire. Bancroft the historian was made chairman*. 

In golden ringlets. G-eorge is a gentleman and a scholar. 

2. 

Alice®, bring your books, slate, and paper. 
The boy e — ! where was he ? 
To be a scholar 8 requires mind and labor. 
My mother® being sick, I remained at home. 
The canal is 4 feet f deep, and 36 feet wide. 

(a.) " Goliath" is a noun, etc. * * * and in the objective case — it is the object of the verb 
tlew — according to Rule IV. — The Italicized words determine the parsing of other words. 

(&.) " Road* is a noun, etc. * * * and in the objective case — it is the object of the prep- 
osition around — according to Rule V. 

(c.) and in the nominative case to agree with " James" according to Rule VII. 

(</.) and in the nominative case to agree with "Bancroft," according to Rule VII. 

(£.) ■ and in the nominative case, according to Rule II. 

(/.) and in the objective case— limiting " deep" — according to Rule VI. 



50 PARSING. 



Pronouns. 



■relative, ) 

Foemula. — A pronoun, — definition ; personal, > and why ; gender, and 

interrogative, ) 
why ; person, and why ; number, and why ; case, and Rule. 

"I myself saw John and his brother." 

" /" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; personal, it is one 
of the pronouns that serve to distinguish the different persons ; of the common gen- 
der, it may denote either a male or a female ; first person, it denotes the speaker ; 
singular number, it means but one ; and in the nominative case — it is the subject of 
the verb saw — according to Rule I. 

"Myself" is a pronoun,— a word that supplies the place of a noun ; compound, it 
is compounded of my and self; personal, etc. * * * and in the nominative case to 
agree with "/," according to Rule VII. 

" His" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; personal, it is 
one of the pronouns that serve to distinguish the different persons ; of the mascu- 
line gender, third person, and singular number, to agree with " John" according to 
Rule IX ; (repeat it ;) and in the possessive case, it limits the meaning of " brother" 
according to Rule III. (Repeat it.) 

" Read thy doom in the flowers, which fade and die." 

a Which" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; relative, it 
makes its clause dependent on another ; of the neuter gender, third person, and 
plural number, to agree with u flowers," according to Rule IX ; (repeat it ;) and in 
the nominative case — it is the subject of the verbs fade and die — according to Rule I. 

" Whom did you see ?" 

" Whom" is & pronoun, — a word that takes the place of a noun ; interrogative, it 
is used to ask a question ; of the common gender, it may denote either a male or a 
female ; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular number, it 
means but one ; and in the objective case — it is the object of the verb did see — ac- 
cording to Rule IV. 

" James reads what pleases him." 

u What" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; relative, it 
makes its clause dependent on another ; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither a 
male nor a female ; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular num- 
ber, it means but one ; and it is here used as the object of " reads" and the subject 
of u pleases," — because it takes the place of that which or thing which, — according to 
Rule VIII. (Repeat it.) 

" Nature deigns to bless whatever man will use her gifts aright." 

" Whatever" is an adjective, — a word that qualifies or limits the meaning of a 
substantive ; definitive, it limits or modifies the meaning of " man," and it belongs 
to u man," according to Rule X. 

" Man" is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a generic name, etc. * * * and 
it is used here as the object of " to bless" and the subject of " will use," — because 
the phrase whatever man takes the place of any or every man that, — according to 
Rule VIII. 

" I do not know what he is doing." 

" What" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; relative, it 
makes its clause dependent on another ; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither a 
male nor a female ; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular 
number, it means but one ; and in the objective case — it is the object of the verb is 
doing-^ according to Rule IV. 






PARSING. 51 

" The Gaul offered his own head to whoever should bring him that of 
"Nero." " The old bird feeds her young ones." " These horses I received 
for the others." 

." Whoever" is apronoun,—Si word that supplies the place of a noun ; compound, 
it is compounded of who and ever ; relative, it makes its clause dependent on an- 
other; of the common gender, third person, singular number, to agree with " per 
son," or " any person," understood before it, — according to Rule IX ; and in the 
nominative case — it is the subject of the verb should give — according to Rule I. 

" That" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; it is here used 
in the place of " the head," and is therefore of the neuter gender, third person, sin- 
gular number : and in the objective case — being the object of the verb bring — ac- 
cording to Rule IV. " Ones" and " others" are parsed in a similar way. 



Parse the articles, the adjectives, the nouns, and the pronouns : — 

1. We caught him. Alfred dressed himself*. Martha has recited her b 
lesson. A dutiful son .is the delight of his parents. And thou c majestic 
Ocean d ! Ye golden clouds ? With me e . To them. Among themselves. 
From their abhorrence of each other/. I saw your brother, whos was sick. 
She who g studies her glass, neglects her heart. It was I d that h went. 

2. He was such a talker as 1 could delight us all J. What k costs nothing, 
is worth 10 nothing 6 . He found what he sought. Take whatever you like. 
Whatever you like, take. I will leave what is useless. Who 1 was Blen- 
nerhasset ? Who m is my neighbor ? Do you know what democracy is ? 
Others may he more intelligent, but none 11 are more amiable, than she is. 
Your horse trots well, but mine paces. Whoever gives to the poor, lends 
to the Lord. 

Art thou m thatJ traitor J anger 4 , art thou m he 1 , 
Who* first broke peace in Heaven ? — Milton. 

(a.) Rule IV. (b.) Rules IX and III. (c.) Rule II. (d.) Rule VII. (e.) Rule V. 

(/.) '• Each other" is a pronoun, a word that supplies the place of a noun; compound, 
it consists of two words ; of the common gender, etc. 

(g.) Rules IX and I. (h.) That=*ioho ; hence a relative pronoun, (i.) was such 

a talker = was a talker that or who . (j ) Adjective, (/c.) Rule VIII. (I.) 

Rule VII. Who was Blennerhasset ?=Blennerhasset was who ? (ra.) Rule I. To apply 
Rule VII to who, would give a different meaning to the sentence, (?i.) Pronoun, (o.) Say, 
44 Mine" is here used for "my horse." My is a pronoun, etc. (Parse the two words as 
usual.) 

Verbs. 

Finite Verbs. 

FORMULA.-A «er&, and why; ^^Urn^Iur, | and why- principal 
farts ; re f u ar S t [■ and why ; the mood, and why ; the tense, and why, — with 

form (emphatic or progressive), and why ; the person and number, to agree with 
its subject , according to Rule XI. 

" My father is ploughing the field which was bought last year." 

" Is ploughing" is a verb, — a word used to affirm something of a subject ; prin- 
cipal parts, — pres. plough, past ploughed, pert", part, ploughed ; regular, it takes the 
inflection ed ; transitive, it has an object (field) ; indicative mood, it affirms some- 
thing as an actual occurrence or fact ; present tense, it expresses the act in present 
time, — and progressive form, it represents it as continuing ; third person and sin- 
gular number, — to agree with its subject father, — according to Kule XI. (Eepeat 

M Was bought" is a verb, — a word used tu affirm something of a subject ; prin- 
cipal parts, — pres. buy, past bought* perf. part, bought ; irregular, it does not take the 



52 PARSING. 

inflection ed ; passive, it affirra3 the act of the object acted upon ; indicative mood, 
it asserts something as an actual occurrence or fact ; past tense, it refers the act 
simply to past time ; third person and singular number, — to agree with its subject 
which, — according to Rule XI. 

Participles and Infinitives. 

p A participle, \ , , \ transitive or passive, ] , , # 

An infinitive, ) ^' intransitive or neuter, ) Y ' 

^" esen ''I ( an( j w hy, — with form, and why ; to what it relates, and according to 

what Rule. (XII.) 

In parsing a present participle, omit form; and in general omit of the Formulas whatever 
is not applicable. 

" The traveler having been robbed, was obliged to sell his horse." 

" Having been robbed'''' is a participle, — an inflected form of the verb, construed 
like an adjective, and expressing no affirmation ; compound, it consists of three 
participles ; passive, it represents its subject as acted upon; perfect in sense, it ex- 
presses the act or state as past and finished at the time referred to ; and it relates to 
" traveler," according to Rule XII. (Repeat it.) 

" To sell" is an infinitive, — a form of the verb beginning usually with to, and 
expressing no affirmation ; transitive, it has an object ; present, it denotes the act 
simply ; and it relates to " traveler," and completes the sense of " was obliged," ac- 
cording to Rule XII. 

" To betray is base." " I insist on writing the letter." 

"To betray" is an intransitive, active, present infinitive, from the verb betray, be- 
trayed, betrayed. It is here used also as a noun of the neuter gender, third person, 
singular number ; and in the nominative case — being the subject of the verb is — 
according to Rule I. 

" Writing" is a transitive, active, present participle, from the verb write, wrote, 
written. It is here used a]so as a noun of the neuter qender, third person, singular 
number ; and in the objective case — being the object of the proposition on — accord- 
ing to Rule V. 

" It affords us pleasure to have seen the rising sun attended by so manj 

beautiful clouds." 

" To have seen" is a transitive, active, perfect infinitive, from the verb see, saw, 
seen. It is here used also as a noun of the neuter gender, third person, singular 
number ; and in the nominative case, to agree with " It," according to Rule VII. 

" Rising" is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a sub- 
stantive ; participial, it is a participle — from the verb rise, rose, risen — ascribing 
the act or state to its subject as a quality • it can not be compared with propriety, 
and belongs to " sun" according to Rule X. 

"Attended" is & participle, — an inflected form of the verb, construed like an 
adjective, and expressing no affirmation ; passive, it represents its subject as acted 
upon ; perfect in form — but present in sense, for it represents the act or state as 
present and continuing at the time referred to ; and it relates to " sun" according 
to Rule XII. 

Parse the articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, finite verbs, participles, and infini* 
lives : — 

1. 
Columbus discovered America. The storm roars. 
We love our friends. Birds fly. It was I*. 

Susan spilt the ink. The leaves quiver. 

Fortune favors him. Rivers flow, and stars twinkle. 

They struck me. The sunny stream glitters. 

The tall pines rustle. The tail pinc3 are rustling. 



PARSING. 53 



The rose is beautiful. Ponds may be deep. 

Fierce was the conflict. You might have been more unfortunate. 

John will become rich. The horses might have been fed. 

Have you been sick? The lady may have been handsome. 

He was the leader. The apples may have been eaten. 

Horace struts a dandy*. Washington was patriotic. 

She was named Mary*. The soldiers will be attacked. 

I was asked some questions 1 *. Reckless youth makes rueful age. 

They made him captain*. Joseph has lost his hat. 

He was made captain*. The tailor will have finished your coat. 

He is said to be c the captain*. Be sincere. (Be thou sincere.) 

Man is made to mourn c . Move your desk. 

Pompey was stabbed. Hope and persevere. 

The summer day is closed — the sun is set d . 

The highest branch is not the safest roost*. 

The "young twig has spread its flowerets to the sun. 

Do you venture a small fish to catch a great one e . 

3. 

The distant hills look blue. You must write a composition. William 
can read Latin. Can you spell u phthisic"? James would go. Mary could 
have learned her lessons. We should love our neighbors. Did you go ? 
Has the instructor left the room ? Time and thinking tame the strongest 
grief. To err* is human ; to forgive, divine. Of making many books, 
there is no end. Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee. If he were 
economical, he would prosper. 

While he went trudging* on foot, wearying himself and wasting his 
time, people came, grew weary, and would not wait. Here was an op- 
portunity* to grow rich. I ordered him h to be brought. It is the duty of 
every one, to cultivate* the heart and mind. Little meddling makes fair 
parting. How are the mighty i fallen ! Let Love h have eyes, and Beauty 
will have ears. silvery streamlet 1 of the fields, that flowest full and free. 
ISTow May, with life and music, the blooming valley fills. To die 1 , — it is 
an awful thing ! — Had Homer and Virgil changed 15 " subjects, they had cer- 
tainly been worse poets at Greece and Rome, whatever they had been 
esteemed by the rest of mankind. — Pope. 

(a.) Rule VII. (6.) Rule VI. (c.) Rale XII. (d.) " is set" =has set. (e.) 

'■'one" is used in the place of "fish" (/.) Rule I. (g.) That is, an opportunity for 

him or any one to grow rich, (h.) Rule IV. (i.) Rule II, (j.) '"the inijhty" = tha 

mighty men. (£.) "Had changed" "had been" (= would have beeu), and " had been 
esteemed" (=might have been esteemed), are in the subjunctive mood. 

Adverbs. 

Formula. — An adverb, and why; if it may bo compared, say so, and how, 
of what kind; to what it belongs, and according to what Huld or Note. 

" The trees are waving beautifully." 

" Beautifully" is an adoerb 1 it modifies the meaning of a verb (are waving) ; it 
may be compared, — pos. beautifully, comp. more beautifully, superl. most beauti* 
fully : it is an adverb of manner or quality ; and it belongs to the verb are wat^' 
according to Rule XIII. (Rapsat of the Rule as much, as is applicable.) 



54 PARSING. 

" Gather roses while they bloom." 

" While" is an adverb, — a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an ad- 
jective, or an adverb ; it is a conjunctive adverb of time ; and it belongs to both the 
verb gather and the verb bloom, according to Rule XIII. Or say, — 

" While" is an adverb, — a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an ad- 
jective, or an adverb ; conjunctive, it connects its own clause to another to express 
the time, according to Note XIII. 

" Can not you go too ?" 

11 Not" is an adverb, — a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or an adverb ; it is an adverb of negation ; and it modifies the verb can go 
with reference to u you," and therefore belongs to them, according to Rule XIII. 
(Repeat it.) 

Parse the articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adverbs : — 
1. Adverbs Modifying Verbs. 

The horse galloped gracefully. My father has just come. 

The birds sung sweetly. The leaves must soon fall. 

The water flows rapidly. God rules everywhere. 

Mary sews and* knits well. Here will I stand. 

.^1 2. Adverbs Modifying Adjectives. 

Her child was very young. He is perfectly honest. 

The music rose softly sweet. My hat is almost new. 

John is most studious. The wound was intensely painful. 

3. Adverbs Modifying Adverbs. 

Some horses can run very fast. Thomas is not very industrious. 
He stutters nearly always. The field is not entirely planted. 

You must come very soon. She had been writing very carefully. 

4. Miscellaneous ffizamples. 

Smack went the whip, round went the wheels. Be always sincere. 
Flowers come forth early. As b you sow, so b you shall reap. In vain we 
seek for a perfect happiness . Sadly and slowly we laid him down. We 
carved not d a line, we raised not a stone. But* he lay like a warrior 
taking his rest. The soldier died where he fell. 

You have advanced not far enough yet. Even e from the tomb the 
voice of nature cries. These scenes, once so f delightful, no longer please 
him. The dew glitters when the sun rises. Joseph behaved as I requested 
him to behave. 

Yainly but well that chief had fought, 

He was a captive now ; 
Yet :i pride that 4 fortune humbles not, 

Was written on* his brow. — Bryant. 

(a.) Words belonging to the parts of speech not yet learned by the pupil, maybe omitted. 
(&.) Manner, (c.) Rule V. (d.) "Not" limits the meaning of "carved" in respect to 
"aline." (e.) "Even" modifies the phrase "from the tomb" or. rather, it modifies the 
verb cries with reference to the phrase "from the tomb." Adjuncts=adverbs or adjectives* 
hence, of course, adverbs can modify them, and not, as some grammarians teach, the prepo* 
sition only. (/.) Degree. 



PARSING. 55 

Prepositions. 

Formula. — A preposition, — definition ; between what it shows the relation ; 
Rule. 

" The water flows over the dam." 

^ "Over" is a preposition, — a word used to show the relation between different 
things ; it here shows the relation of "flows" to " dam" according to Eule XIV 
(Eepeat it.) 

Parse all the words except the conjunctions : — 

1. 

I found a dollar in the road. In spring, the leaves come forth. We 
should not live beyond our means. I stuck a thorn into my thumb. He 
struggled manfully against the evils of fortune. An eagle rose near* the 
city, and flew over it far away beyond the distant hills. We traveled from 
New York to Washington City,. by railroad, in eight hours. As to the 
policy of the measure, I shall say nothing. The river is washing the soil 
from under the tree. I caught a turtle instead 13 of a fish. 

2. 
A line of woody hills stretched into the vast level prairie, like a prom- 
ontory into the bosom of the ocean. — Irving. 

There stood a forest on the mountain's brow, 

Which overlooked the shaded plains below; 

ISTo sounding axe presumed those trees to bite, 

Coeval with the world, a venerable sight c . — Dryderfs Virgil. 

(a.) Rule X. (6.) "Instead of" is better written and parsed as three words, (c.) 
Rule VII. 

Conjunctions. 

Formula. — A conjunction, and why ; its peculiar nature ; what it connects ; 
Rule XV. 

" The meadow produces grass and flowers." 

" And" is a conjunction, — a word that joins something to another part of the 
discourse, and shows how the parts so connected are viewed with respect to each 
other ; it implies simply continuance, or that something more is added ; and it con- 
nects the words grass -and flowers, according to Eule XV. 

" You must either buy mine or sell yours." 

" Either" is a conjunction, a word, etc. * * * it corresponds to " or", and assists 
it in connecting two phrases according to Rule XV. 

" Or" is a conjunction, etc. * * * it is alternative, or allows hut one of the 
things offered, to the exclusion of the rest; it here corresponds to " either" , and 
connects two phrases according to Rule XV. 

Parse all the words : — 

Learning refines and elevates the mind. Eagles generally go alone, but 
little birds go in flocks. I know this peach is good, because it is ripe. I 
know* this peach is good, because I have tasted it. The silk was light- 



56 PARSING. 

blue, or sky-colored, though it should have been white or black. Unless 
you live virtuously, you can not be happy. You must write immediately, 
unless you have already written. . Again, every man is entitled to com- 
pensation for his services. If it rain to-morrow, we shall have to remain 
at home. 

He was always courteous to wise and gifted men ; for he knew that 
talents, though in poverty, are more glorious than birth or riches [are]. 
Sin may give momentary pleasure : but the pain is sure to follow 1 *. 
Whether my brother come or not, I will either buy or rent the farm. 
Neither precept nor discipline is so forcible as example [is]. Though he is 
poor, yet he is honest. If you can not resist sin, then avoid temptation. 
The mother, as well as the father, should be intelligent. I will pardon you, 
inasmuch as you repent. He has labored long and diligently, and yet he 
is still poor. 

I have no mother, for she died 
When I was very young ; 

But her memory still around my heart, 
, Like morning mists, has hung. 

(a.) Transitive. *' This peach is good" or that this peach is good, is here used as a noun 
of the neuter gender, third person, singular number, and in the objective ease — being the 
object of '•'■know'" — according to liule IV. Now parse " this,''' etc., as before. (6.) R. XII. 

Interjections. 

Formula.— An interjection, and why ; its peculiar nature or meaning ; 
llule. 

" Alas ! no hope for me remains." 

" Alas" is an interjection, it expresses an emotion only, and is not connected in 
construction with any other word ; it here implies grief or dejection ; and it is used 
independently, according to Kale XVI. 

Parse all the words : — 

0, young Lochinvar is come out of the West. Ah ! *few 10 A shall part 
where many 10 A meetl Desdemona 2 1 Desdemona! dead*? Dead I 
Oh! oh! oh! 

The tree blossoms sweetly. Sweet blossoms adorn the tree. Give 
what 8 you can spare. What 7 is that yonder ? I know not what 7 it is. 
What 10 a simpleton he is ! What l is a pronoun. Is is is 7 . What 16 ! shall 
we never have any rest ? The train from out the castle drew ; but Mar- 
mion stopped to bid adieu. 

(a.) Art thou dead ? 



For abridged or " skeleton" parsing, proceed precisely m the same wa\ 
as heretofore shown, with the exception of omitting the reasons. 

"John is reading." "John" is a noun ; prober ; masculine gender ; third person ; 
singular number ; and in the nominative case — it is the subject of the verb is reading 
— according to Rule I. 

"Is reading" is a verb ; principal parts, — read, read, read ; irregular • intransi- 
tive ; indicative mood ; present tense, and progressive form ; third person and singu- 
lar 'number, to agree with " John," according to Kule XI. 

* In these and all future parsing lessons, a number placed over a word, indicates tha 
Ruje to be applied to it; aad a caret shown where words are lo be supplied. 



PARSING. 5*7 

Miscellaneous Examples. 
1. 

I have found violets, fresh young violets 7 . — Willis. 
Our life is one long lesson. — Boker. 

Self-love is not so great a sin as 15 self-neglecting 1 . — Shakespeare. 
He should consider often, who 9 & 1 can choose but 13 once. 
It is knowledge enough for some people, to know 7 how far they can 
proceed in mischief with impunity. — British Essayists. 

The question of what 1 or 10 are to be the powers 7 of the crown, is supe- 
rior to that 6 of who 1 is to wear 12 iW- Fox. 

It was very prettily said, " We may learn the little value of fortune, 
by the persons on whom Heaven is pleased to bestow it." — Steele. 
Talent is full of thoughts; but Genius A , full of thought. 
Sweet clime 2 of my kindred, blest land of my birth ! 
The fairest A , the dearest . A , the brightest A , on earth ! 
Accordingly, a company assembled 11 armed 12 and accoutred, and, hav- 
ing procured 12 a fieldpiece, appointed 11 Major Harrison commander 7 , and 
proceeded to accomplish 12 their design. — History of Ohio. 

The Assyrian came down 13 like 13 the wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ; 
And the sheen of their spears was like 10 stars on the sea, 
When the blue waves roil nightly on deep Galilee. — Byron. 

2. 
My warriors fell around me ; it began to look dismal. I saw my evil 
day at hand. The sun rose dim on us in the morning; and at night it 
sank in a dark cloud, and looked like a ball of fire. That 10 was the last 
sun that y * l shone on Black Hawk. His heart is dead, and no 1? longer 
beats quick 10 in his bosom. He is now a prisoner to the white men ; they 
will do with him as they wish. But he can stand torture, and is not 
afraid 10 of death. He is no 10 coward. Black Hawk is an Indian. — Black 
Hawk. 

3. 
Though the world smile on you blandly, 

Let 11 your friends be 12 choice 10 and few ; 
Choose your course, pursue it grandly, 

And achieve what* you pursue. — T. B. Read, 

i. 

Sweet is the breath of Morn, her rising^ sweet 
With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the Sun, 
When first on this delightful land he spreads 
His orient beams — on herb, tree, fruit, and flower, 
Glistening with dew ; fragrant the fertile Earth 
After soft showers ; and sweet the coming- on 
Of grateful Evening mild ; then silent Night, 
With this her solemn bird, and tins fair Moon, 
And these the gems of Heaven, her starry train. — Milton. 
3* 



1. Introductory View. — Grammar; English Grammar; its 
parts. 

2. Pronunciation* — Letters and elementary sounds ; accent ; 
exercises ; observations. 

3. Orthography. — Capital letters, with exercises; syllables; 
rules of spelling, with exercises. 

4. ^Derivation of Words. — Prefixes and suffixes, with exer- 
cises. 

5. Nouns and Pronouns. — Classes of each; properties', 
exercises ; observations. See Synopsis of Part First. 

6. Articles. — Principles; exercises; observations. 

7. Adjectives. — Classes ; degrees of comparison ; pronominal 
adjectives defined ; exercises ; observations. 

§. Verbs. — Classes ; properties ; auxiliary verbs ; participles and 
infinitives; conjugation; exercises; observations. See Synopsis of 
Part First. 

9. Adverbs. — Principles ; exercises ; observations. 

10. Prepositions. — Principles ; illustrations ; constructions ; 
exercises ; observations. 

11. Conjunctions. — Principles; illustrations; exercises; ob- 
servations. 

12. Interjections. — Principles; exercises; observations. 

13. Rhetorical Devices- — Equivalent expressions ; arrange- 
ment ; ellipsis ; pleonasm ; exercises. 

14. Rhetorical Figures. — Definitions and illustrations; 
exercises ; observations. 

15. Versification. — Principles ; more than one hundred and 
fifty different specimens of verse, scanned ; observations. 

16. Analysis of Sentences. — Principles, with exercises ; sen- 
tences analyzed ; exercises ; summary of analysis and description. 

17. Punctuation. — Period; colon; semicolon; comma; in- 
terrogation-point; exclamation-point; dash; curves; brackets; hy- 
phen ; underscore ; observations ; miscellaneous marks. 



PART SECOND 



1. INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 

Grammar treats of language. Taken in its widest 
sense, the Grammar of a language shows how its words 
are formed, modified, and arranged, to express thoughts, 
either in speaking or in writing, according to established 
usage. 

The word Grammar means marks or xcriting ; because mankind did not feel the necessity of study- 
ing language, till they came to write it, and so first devised the science of writing. Science is method- 
ized knowledge. 

Language, so far as Grammar is concerned with it, pertains to words, and is 
cither spokm or written. Objects, actions, and sounds not articulate, may also be 
occasionally used as language, which is sometimes termed natural or symbolic 
language. 

Language not only exists, but lives, grows, and decays. It is not a dead mech- 
anism, but a living organism. Words, and modes of expression, are constantly 
coming into use ; others, passing out of use ; and others, assuming new burdens 
of meaning, and perhaps losing their old. 

Not only Grammar, but also Logic and Rhetoric treat of language. Gram- 
mar looks to the vehicle, Logic and Rhetoric regard rather what is conveyed : 
these, learned in one language, generally suffice for any other ; but it is not so 
with Grammar. Logic, in reference to language, teaches how thoughts are 
rightly expressed in regard to truth and reason ; Rhetoric, how they are ex- 
pressed so as to make the most vivid and effectual impression. A geometry 
displays most logic, and a book of poems most rhetoric. 



English Grammar teaches how to speak and write the 
English language correctly. This is the practical view. 

It is a thorough analysis, or anatomy, of the language, completely 
laying open its nature in general principles, and especially teaching 
those properties in respect to which we are liable to misuse it, or at 
least those on which its right construction depends. This is the 
philosophical view. 

English Grammar may be divided into five parts ; Pronuncia- 
tion, Orthograpy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Pronunciation means uttering forth aloud ; orthography, correct writing ; etymology, the 
tn/fi nature of wards; syntax, placing together ; and prosody, tone added, and thence, whatever is 
udded to the least adorned language, to make it clearer or more expressive. 

What is said of Grammar? English Grammar? Into how many parts divided? 



60 PRONUNCIATION. ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

Pronunciation treats of the sounds of the letters, and of 
the sounds and stress of syllables in the utterance of separate words. 

Orthography treats of the forms of letters, and teaches how 
to spell words correctly. 

Etymology, in its popular sense, is the history of words; but 
in grammar it merely denotes the part which classifies words, and 
teaches those properties and modifications which adapt thern to the 
formation of sentences. 

Syntax treats of the relations and proper arrangement of words 
in the formation of sentences. 

Prosody, in its narrowest sense, treats of versification ; in its 
widest sense, of figures, versification, utterance, and punctuation. 

2. PRONUNCIATION. 

Our language has about forty elementary sounds, which are 

represented by twenty-six letters, called the alphabet. 

The Phoneticians make forty-three elementary sounds. Long vowels : eel, ale, 
arm, all, ope, food. Short vowels; in, ell, an, add, utj, foot. Shade vowels: 
earth, air, ask. Diphthongs : isle, oil, owl, mule. Coalescents : yea,, way. As, 
pirate : hay. Explodents : rojpe, robe, fate, fade, etch, edge, lock, loa. Continu- 
ants : sa/e, sa^e, wrea,th, wrea,ihe, buss, buzz, vicious, vision. Liquids : fa.ll, for. 
Nasal Liquids : seem, seen, sing. Of these, a in add and a in an are the same ; 
and oi and ou or oio are. compounds equivalent to a-i and a-oo ; so that we have 
bat forty elementary sounds. If c as heard in citron, is more slender than s as 
heard in sister ; and if o as heard in form, is broader than a as heard in all, — then 
there are forty-two elementary sounds in all. 

The parts x>f the throat and mouth, by means of which the letters are 
pronounced, are called the organs of speech. These are the glottis, palate, 
tongue, teeth, and lips. 

The elementary §©waid§ are either inarticulate or articulate. 

The inarticulate sounds are simple sounds formed by keeping the 
organs of speech more or less apart or open. 

The articulate sounds are simple sounds that begin or end in a 
closing of some of the organs of speech. 

Articulate means "jointed;" inarticulate, "not jointed." These words are applied to speech, 
from a fancied resemblance of the syllables in a word to the parts of a jointed plant ; thus, in-im- 
ic-al, en-ter-tain-ment. Here the sound, like the pith, is broken or stopped at certain points ; and 
n, m, c, I, and t, serve as partitions in the sound, like the joints in the pith of a reed or stalk. 

A letter is a character used to represent one or more of the 
elementary sounds of language; or it is the least distinct part of a 
written word. 

A letter generally has for its name one of the sounds, or powers, which it represents. 

Sometimes two or more letters represent but one elementary 
sound. 

Ex. — Ph=f, as in phleme; eau=o, as in beau ; ch, in church; ih, in thou. 

What is said of Pronunciation? Orthography? Etymology? Syntax? Prosody? 
What do you know of the original meaning of these terms? Our language has how many 
elementary sounds ? Elementary sounds are of what two kinds ? What is an inarticulate 
sound ? An articulate sound ? A letter ? 



PRONUNCIATION. LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS. 61 

The letters are divided into vowels and consonants ; the conso- 
nants, into mutes and semivowels ; and some of the semivowels are 
called liquids. 

This division of the letters not only distinguishes them according to their na- 
ture, but is the basis of many valuable rules. 

The vowels are a, e, e, o, u; also w and y, when not followed 
by a vowel sound in the same syllable. 

They can be sounded alone, and represent each several inarticu- 
late elementary sounds. (Except w.) 

Ex. — Fate, fore, fat, for, foil; me, met; fine, fin, fategue; no, not, dove, 
prove, book; -wse, ^s, foil; city, cry; broio, dew, hoy. 

The consonants are all the letters except the vowels. 

They are so called because they can not be sounded alone ; or 
rather, when they are uttered alone, the sound of a vowel is always 
heard with them. 

Ex. — B, o, d,f, m, 1c, are pronounced as if written be, se, de, ef, em, Jca. 

W or y is a consonant when a Yowel sound follows it in the same 

syllable ; as in water, young, year, Iowa, Bunyan. 

27 and i are consonants when equivalent to the consonants w and y / as in per- 
suade, poniard. — X=ks, gz, or z ; as in tax, exalt, Xerxes. 

The mutes have no sound whatever without the aid of a vowel, 
and at the end of a syllable stop the voice entirely. 

They are b, p, d, t, k, qu. (=kw) ; also c and g when hard, as in 
lac, gig. 

The semivowels are all the consonants except the mutes. 
They are so called, because they are, in their nature, between vowels 
and mutes ; having some sound by themselves. 

The liquids are I, m, n, r, and perhaps s ; so called from their 
soft sound, which easily flows into and unites with that of other 
letters. 

Ex. — Lily, million, ' brilliant, Albion, Columbia, mammon, Alps, pearl, stamp, 
bring, volleying. 

" Lull with Amelia's liquid name the Nine." — Pope. 

A diphthong is two vowels joined and blended in one sound. 
Ex. — Blood, doom, bo^, round, earn, crow, now, vain, nlay. 

A diphthong is proper, if the two vowels are heard, or form a 

sound different from that of either ; improper, if only one vowel is 

heard. 

Ex. — Oil, ground, room, ]oy, brow, fraud. Eagle, heart, mourn, fair, slight, 
deceit. 

A triphthong is three vowels joined and blended in one sound. 
Ex. — Beauty, hnreau, view, huoy. 

How are the letters classified ? What can you say of vowels ? Consonants ? W and y ? 
Mutes? Liquids? Diphthongs? Triphthongs? 



62 PRONUNCIATION. ACCENT. 

Triphthongs are also divided, like diphthongs, into proper and 
improper, according as the vowels are all sounded or not all sounded. 

A letter is said to be silent, when it is suppressed in pronuncia- 
tion. 

Ex. — Walk, kil?&, night, foreign, vkrtwals, ^our. 

The pronunciation of discourse by means of letters, may be compared to music from a flute or 
other similar instrument. The vowels are analogous to the different notes or tones : they afford the 
sound. The consonants resemble the stoppages by means of the fingers. Not any or every arrange- 
ment of letters makes language ; nor will any or every mode of playing produce music. — In singing, 
vowel sounds are made most prominent. 

Mention the vowels, consonants, mutes, semivowels, liquids, silent letters ; also the diph- 
tliongs and triphthongs, and of what kind : — 

0, b, d, e, i, f, a, m, u, r, s, f, 1, q, y, g, z, announcement, analytical, history, 
czar, revolution, youthful, years, gorgeous, colorings, clang, oyster, weight, sleight, 
streak, steak, phthisic ; sparkling fountains. — Eome was an ocean of flame. Height 
and depth were covered with rod surges, that rolled before the blast like an end- 
less tide. 



Letters are formed into syllables, and syllables into words. 

The simple or obvious sounds of language as we hear it spoken, are 
syllables. 

When more syllables than one make a word, we admit into the pro- 
nunciation what is called accent. 

ACCENT. 

Accent is a distinguishing stress on some syllable of a word 
having two or more syllables. 

Ex. — Ba'-ker, a-muse', con'-ti-nent, con-tent'-ment, coun-ter-act', tem'-per-a- 
ment, ge-o-graph'-ic-al ; to con-tract 7 , a con'-tract. " Not the les-sor 7 , but the les- 
see'." " An au-gust' procession, in the month of Au'-gust." 

The common or word accent seems to have been introduced into language to distinguish 
syllables that are themselves words, from those which are only parts of words. An accented 
syllable at once indicates, that there are other syllables about it forming a part of the same 
word. Accent, moreover, contributes to euphony, and to ease of utterance. It also serves 
to distinguish words from others in some way related to them ; and sometimes, to show the 
most important part of the word. An eminent German grammarian says, " As soon as lan- 
guage proceeds from mere articulation to coherency and connection, accent becomes the 
guide of the voice." 

Words of three or more syllables generally have a chief accent, 

called the primary accent ; and one or more inferior accents, called 

the secondary accent or accents. 

Ex. — Lu'-mi-na-ry, coun-ter-act', an-te-ce'-dent, ep-i-gram-mat'-ic, in-dem- 
ni-fi-ca'-tion, in-com-pre-hen-si-bil / -i-ty. 

Some words, mostly compounds, have two accents of nearly equal 

stress. 

Ex.— A'-men', fare'-well'! down'-fall', knit'ting-nee'dle, e'ven-hand'ed, lin'- 
sey-wool'sey. 

To pronounce well, it is important to know the elementary sounds and their 
combinations, to divide words accurately into syllables, and to know which syllable 

What can you say of triphthongs ? When is a letter silent? What is said of letters, syl- 
lables, and accent? What is accent? What are some of its advantages? What is said of 
primary and of secondary accent ? What of two equal accents ? • What is needed, to pro 
nounce well ? 



PRONUNCIATION. ACCENT. 63 

of a word has the chief accent. To know where the chief accent should be placed, 
is sufficient ; for the others then naturally fall into their places. 

Most words used in our language have the chief accent either on 
the penult or on the antepenult ; that is, on the second or the third 
syllable from the end. 

Ex.— Val'-ley, con'-quest, at-tor'-ney, tem'-per-ate, mu-ta-bil'-i-ty. 

Latin, Greek, or Scriptural names, always have the chief accent on 
the penult or on the antepenult. 

Ex. — Cor-i-o-la'-nus, Ar-is-toph'-a-nes, Jer-e-mi / -ah, Je-ru'-sa-lem. 

Ordinary English words sometimes have the chief accent as far back as 
on the fourth or even the fifth syllable from the end. 

Ex. — Co-tenV-po-ra-ry, ob'-li-ga-to-ry. But when on the fifth syllable from 
the end, the pronunciation becomes so difficult that there is a strong tendency to 
throw the chief accent on some syllable nearer the end ; and hence we often hear 
ob'-li-ga-to-ry, for instance, pronounced oo-lig'-a-to-ry. 

Words ending in the sound of shun, zhun, or chun, or in any 

kindred sound, have the chief accent on the penult. 

Ex. — Convention, popula'-tion, posses'-sion, combus'-tion, complex'-ion, am- 
bro'-sia, musi'-cian, politi'-cian, pertinacious, circuinstan'-tial, artificial, coura'- 
geous, insuffi'-cient. 

Words ending in cive, sive, ic, ics, or tive preceded by a consonant, 

have the chief accent on the penult. 

Ex. — Condu'-cive, eva'-sive, hero'-ic, sulphu'-ric, characterist'-ic, philanthrop'- 
ic, phonet'-ics, harmon'-ics, calisthen'-ics , consunrp'-tive. 

Exceptions: Arith'-rnetic, ar'-senic (noun), ad'-jective, bish'-opric, cath'- 
olic, chol'-eric, ephem / -eric, herpetic, lu'-natic, pol'-itic, pol'-itics, rhet'-oric, sub- 
stantive, tur'-inerie, and perhaps pleth/-oric and splen'-etic. 

Words ending in acal, acy, athy ; e-al, e-an, e-ous ; efy, ety, erous; 
Jluous, fluent ; gonal, graphy ; i-a, i-ac, i-al ; i-an, ical, i-ous ; 
inous, ify, ity ; logy, loquy, lysis; meter, ' me try ; orous, ulous ; 
phony, tomy, or thropy, — have the chief accent on the antepenult. 

Ex. — Heli'-acal, theoc'-racy, syin'-pathy, empyr'-eal, or'-deal, Herculean, 
ceru'-lean, sponta'-neous, stu'-pefy, sati'-ety, armig'-erous, aurif-erous, supeiv- 
fluous, circum'-iluent, diag'-onal, orthog'-raphy, lithog'-raphy, rega'-lia, arnmo'- 
niac, armo'-rial, trage'-diaD, astronomical, contume'-lious, om'-inous, volu'-min- 
ous, person'-ify, anal'-ogy, col'-loquy, paral'-ysis, baroni'-eter, trigonom'-etry, 
o'-dorous, carniv'-orous, sed'-ulous, eu'-phony, anat'-omy, misan'-thropy. 

Exceptions : Aclamante'-an, antipode'-an, colosse'-an, cano'-rous, empyre'- 
an, Epicure'-an, hymene'-al, hymene'-an, pygme'-an. 

Words of three or more syllables, ending in ative, have the accent 
on the antepenult, or on the preceding syllable. 

Ex. — Ab'-lative, demonstrative, commu'-nicative, op'-erative, pal r -liative, 
speculative. 

Ex ceptions: Crea'-tive, colla'-tive, dila'-tive. 

Some words may be pronounced in different ways, with good 
authority for each pronunciation. 

Ex. — Adver'-tisenient, or advertise'-ment ; deco'-rous, or dec'-orous. 

On what syllables are most of our words accented ? How are Latin, Greek, or Scriptural 
names accented ? What is said of words ending in the sound of shun, etc. ? In cive, etc. ? 
In acaly etc. ? In ative, etc. ? What is said of words pronounced in different ways ? 



64 PRONUNCIATION. EXERCISES. 

Exercises in Pronunciation. 

The following exercises may serve to guard the student against the chief current faults of Protimi- 
ciation. The words are those most frequently mispronounced in the different parts of the United States. 

1. G-ive to every syllable its proper sound. 

Pronounce the following words correctly : Been, were, of, for, nor, and, catch, 
caught, shut, bleat, such,- get, can, little, end, gather, rather, cart, cow, sky, new, 
view, attitude, Tuesday, girl, gird, guise, garden, regard, where, there, bear* 
daughter, hearth, again, against, hinder, James, general, learn, sauce, saucy, 
saucer, touch, pert, because, umbrella, district, lord, God, dog, scarce, boil, spoil, 
join, joist, point, disappoint, my, myself, thy, thyself, earth, pretty, brethren, 
children, into, covered, roof, hoof, good, to, tassel, nature, future, once, hundred, 
image, twice, natural, national, rational, terrors, husband, different, whole, drove, 
stone, kettle, rinse, wince, licorice, enthusiast, tune, gratitude, beauteous, im- 
mediate, unctuous, tedious, guardian, crystal, distich, pronunciation, since, yes, 
ear, are, another, cross-wise, chewing-tobacco, passage, steady, spectacle, stretch, 
education, speculation, contributed, diminutive, calculate, either, creature, pa- 
rent, sword, daunt, haunt, hurricane, leisure, geography, extraordinary, often, 
soften, hasten, raspberry, subtle, disfranchise, sacrifice, auxiliary, irradiate, 
ignoramus, philosophy, diploma, divert, divest, dilemma, dilapidate, stupendous, 
tremendous, mountainous, proposal, verbatim, apparatus, afflatus, your, tour, 
going, after, parson, parse, yon, yonder, yours, theirs, his, ours, half, calf, cer- 
tainly, sudden, suddenly, yellow, meadow, widow, window, shallow, hollow, 
Africa, Asia, America, magnolia, fought, might, Indians, negro, onions, have, 
boiler, engine, service, when, what, where, whet, which, while, sit, set, sat, 
liberty, Saturday, daguerreotype, stereotype, haven't, ask, asked, women, 
Athens, Themistocles, method, records, attacked, continually, interest, latent, 
patent, chimney, bayonet, cupola, fiend, shook, books, inquiries, search, sort 
of, kind ofj give me, draught, reiterated, isolated, acorn, vermin, precede, 
prevent, predict, perhaps, only, prairie, personage, potatoes, coquet, fortune, 
massacred, helped, curds, mercy, drowned, partaker, iniquities, heinous, vio- 
lent, extremities, recoil, instead, instrument, thousands, tremble, sarcasm, 
chasm, prism, film, elm, audacious, kitchen, foreigners, spirits, heard, beard, 
decisive, drain, figure, preface, designate, Italian, stamp, sleek, slake, sieve, 
verdigris, does, dost, doth, feminine, masculine, clandestine, genuine, crystal- 
line, favorite, respite, hostile, fertile, mercantile, profile. Englishmen say hit 
for it, and orse for horse. 

2. Be careful not to omit any letter or letters of a syllable, nor any 
syllable or syllables of a word, that are not silent. 

Pronounce correctly : Kept, slept, nests, lists, costly, conquests, consonants, 
door, floor, and, idea, first, worth, months, clothes, sixths, old, must, guests, 
texts, adopts, bounds, minds, perfectly, shred, shrewd, shrub, shriek, shrink, 
shroud, shrill, strength, length, something, fold, child, held on, hands, stand, 
grinds, object, transcript, tempests, worse, curse, nursling, real, poem, horses, 
histoty, hickory, victory, several, emperor, salary, artery, separate, believe, 
temporarily, general, particular, nursery, boundary, flattery, governor, nomi- 
native, usually, excellency, purity, government, expect, suppose, attend, 
against, esteem, surface, astonished, waistband, waistcoat, according, clothing, 
morning, evening, entering, playing, Washington. 

3. Place the accent on the proper syllable. 

Difficult, opponent, component, fanatic, heretic, towards, into, abstractly, 
interesting, interested, arable, orchestra, contemplative, superfluous, exqui- 
site, indissolubly, deficit, discipline, inexorably, mischievous, alabaster, im- 

What is the first direction in regard to pronunciation ? The second ? The third? 



PRONUNCIATION. EXERCISES. 65 

petut: miscellany, sepulchre, condolence, mandamus, quinine, pantheon, 
horizon, precedents, precedence, discourse, concourse, dessert, inquiry, idea, 
ancestor, artificer, posthumous, burlesque, chagrin, placard, recess, diversely, 
industry, interference, envious, retributive, hospitable, computable, hospital, 
theatre, museum, lyceum, compromise, commissary, hydropathy, hydropathic. 

4. Bear in mind that derivatives are not always accented or pro- 
nounced like their primitives. 

Pronounce correctly : Pyramid, pyramidal ; revoke, revocable, revokable ; 
repair, reparable, reparation ; converse, conversant ; oblige, obligatory ; com- 
pare, comparable, incomparable ; Europe, European ; Hercules, Herculean ; 
organic, organizable; depose, deposition; respire, respiratory; circulate, circu- 
latory ; transfer, transferable, transference ; lament, lamentable ; metallic, met- 
allurgy; preserve, preservation; depute, deputy, deputable; detest, detestation; 
sagacious, sagacity ; tenacious, tenacity ; crystal, crystallizable, crystallization, 
crystaTurgy; present, presentation; perforate, perforative; paralielopiped, par- 
allelopipedon ; calculate, caleulatory; sacrifice, sacrificatory ; center, confer- 
ence; iliac, iliacal ; defalcate, defalcation ; aspire, aspirate, aspirant;, cyanic, 
cyanate, cyanean; colossus, colossean ; comment, conimentative, commenta- 
ries; supplicate, supplicatory; assign, assignor, assignee; lithograph, lithog- 
raphy ; apostrophe, apostrophic ; philanthropy, philanthropic ; supplement, 
supplemental; condemn, condemner, condemnation; damn, damning; solemn, 
solemnize; allopathy, allopathic; homoeopathy, homoeopathic. 

A change in the part of speech often requires a change in the pro- 
nunciation ; as, To pro-duce', the prod'-uce, prod'-ucts ; to pro-gress', 
the prog'-ress; to u$e, the use. Such words, when used as nouns or 
adjectives, generally have the accent on the first syllable; and when 
used as verbs, on the second or last. 

Pronounce correctly : To absent, — to be absent, abject; to abstract, — an ab 
stract, abstract qualities; to accent, affix, augment, — the accent, affix, aug- 
ment. To colleague, collect, compact, complot, compound, compress, concert, 
concrete, conduct, confine, conflict, conserve, consort, contest, contract, con- 
trast, convert, converse, convict, convoy, countercharge, countermarch, counter- 
sign, etc. ; a colleague, collect, compact, complot, compound, compress, concert, 
concrete, the conduct, confines, a conflict, conserve, consort, contest, contract, con- 
trast, convert, converse, convict, convoy, countercharge, countermarch, counter- 
sign, etc. To desert, descant, digest, discount; a desert, descant, digest 
discount. To escort, essay, export, extract, exile ; an escort, essay, export, 
extract, exile. To ferment, forecast, foretell, foretaste, frequent; a ferment, 
foretaste, with forecast, frequent notices. To import, impress, incense, in- 
crease, inlay, insult, interchange, interdict : an import, impress, incense, in 
crease, inlay, insult, interchange, interdict. To object, outlaw, overchargej 
overflow, overthrow, etc. ; an object, outlaw, overcharge, overflow, overthrow, 
etc. To perfume, permit, prefix, prelude, premise, presage, present, project, 
protest-; a perfume, permit, prefix, prelude, premise, presage, present, project, 
protest. To rebel, record, refuse, retail, reprimand ; a rebel, record, the refuse, 
by retail, a reprimand. To subject, suffix, survey; a subject, suffix, survey. 
To torment, transfer, transport; a torment, transfer,' transport. To undress, 
upstart ; an undress, upstart. 

Prec'-edents, precedent statutes ; with ar'-senic, arsen'-ic acid ; to be su 
pine', mi-nute', au-gust', com-pact', to be iu-stinct' with life, to be inval'-id, 
gal'-lant, — an in'-valid, a gal-lant', in Au'-gust. 

What is the fourth direction ? The fifth ? What is said of words used in different senses 1 



66 PRONUNCIATION AND UTTERANCE. 

To ally, an ally ; to release, a release ; to discourse, a discourse ; to design, 
a design; to intrigue, an intrigue; to descend, ascend, — the descent, ascent ; 
to assent, consent, — my assent, consent. 



The following are some of the governing principles of Pronunciation : — 
1« Pronounce words according to their spelling, or according to analogy, unless 
custom is decidedly against such a pronunciation. 

2. Indicate difference in meaning by difference in pronunciation. 

3, Use accent in such a way that it may contribute to ease of utterance, or 
serve to distinguish and enforce the meaning. 

English pronunciation has a hasty air, tends to brevity, and slides its accents toward the 
left. An omnibus has become a mere 'bus; a balco'-ny has become a baV-cony. Worcester is 
pronounced Waster; Brougham, Brum; and Michiliniackinac loses its serpentine length in 
Mak'-e-ndw, The verbal ending ed is yet heard in the speech of some very old people ; but 
unless the word is used adjectively, this ending is now generally blended with the preceding 
syllable, when it will coalesce with it in sound. Most of our final e's are but the remains of 
syllables that were once pronounced. 



In regard, to Utterance, it may be well to nut ice the following particulars : — 

1. Articulation ; 2. Degree of Loudness ; 3. Degree of Rapidity ; 4. Inflections ; 
5. Tones; 6. Emphasis; 7. Pauses. 

1. Good articulation requires the words to be uttered with their proper sound, 
clearly, fully in all their syllables, and distinctly from one another. It is opposed 
to mumbling, mouthing, mincing, muttering, slurring, drawling, clipping, lisping, 
hesitating, stammering, miscalling, and recalling. 

" Words should drop from the lips as beautiful coins newly issued from the 
mint, — deeply and accurately impressed, perfectly finished, neatly struck by the 
proper organs, distinct, sharp, in due succession, and of due weight." — Austin. 

That we have many words nearly alike in sound, yet widely different in mean- 
ing, is alone a sufficient reason for exact articulation. Thus, cheer and chair ; pint 
and point; borne, born • genus, gndus ; imminent, eminent ; satire, satyr ; burst, 
bust ; beer, bear, pear ; close, clothes ; false, faults ; idle, idol ; gluten, glutton / critic, 
critique ; antic, antique ; just, jest / real, reel ; rea,r, rare / turnip, turn up. 

2 and 3. The degree of loudness or rapidity must depend on the speaker, the 
hearer, the discourse, the place, or other circumstances. Scarcely any thing else 
is so disagreeable as utterance too rapid, low, and jumbled, to be intelligible, and 
rather suggesting that the speaker is ashamed to let others know what he is saying. 

4. Inflections refer to the passage of the voice from one key or pitch to an- 
other. There are three : the rising inflection, which implies elevation of the 
voice ; the, falling inflection, which implies a sinking of the voice ; and the circum- 
flex, which combines the other two. " Was it you, or Kef'' " Madam, you have 
my father much offended." 

5. The tones are voice as modulated by feeling. They should be adapted to 
the general discourse, and also to its distinct sentiments." Tones aim to awaken, 
by sympathy, the intended emotions in the hearer ; and they may also give a 
favorable opinion of the speaker's heart and feelings. 

" In exordiums, the voice should be low, yet clear ; in narrations, distinct ; in 
reasoning, slow; in persuasions, strong : it should thunder in angtXi ■often in sor- 
row, tremble in fear, and melt in love.'''' — Hiley. 

6. Emphasis is an elevation of the voice on some words word, ■ part of a 
word, by which the meaning is brought out more precisely or .o' nbly. Emphasis, 
properly used, adds greatly to the vigor of discourse. It tends to impress on the 
nearer how clearly and fully the speaker comprehends the meaning of his dis- 
course, or the importance of the subject. It gives a favorable opinion of the 
speaker's understanding. A judicious union of emphasis and tone has sometimes 
a powerful effect. Emphasis : " We must fight ; I repeat it, sir, we must fight." 

What are some of" the governing principles of Pronunciation? What is the tendency 
of English pronunciation? What can you say of articulation? Degree of loudness or ra- 
pidity? Inflections? Tones? l,niphasi.s ? Pauses? 



ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL LETTERS. 67 

7- Pauses are of three kinds : sentential or grammatical pauses, xvhich show 
tne grammatical sense ; rhetorical pauses, which are used for emphasis, or for effect 
on the hearer ; and harmonic or metrical pauses, which are used in poetry. The 
last two kinds are essentially the same. An emphatic pause is made before or 
after the utterance of something of great importance ; and it may sometimes be 
far more eloquent than the most expressive words. 

3. ORTHOGRAPHY. 

? The letters are used in various styles ; as, — 

Roman, Italic, &*jM t ©ttr (English C)lTia€lIE&^;M€ll 3 
modern Black. 

? The letters are printed in types of various sizes ; as, — 

Great Primer, f maU p pica > £i 

-r, 1 . , • Long Primer, y ^ 

English t> • Agate ' 

j_jj.i ±ioh ? Bourgeois, 



Pica ; 



Brevier, 



? The letters are used either as capital letters or as lower-case 
or small letters. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

?* 1. Capital letters should not be used without good reason, 
or when small letters wil? express the sense as w r ell or better. 

J In the German language, every noun begins with a capital letter ; and in 
Old English, capital letters are used about as often, and less definitely. 

Capital letters seem to have "been at the highest flood-mark in the time of Queen Eliza- 
beth ; at the lowest ebb, in the time of Queen Anne ; and they rose again amazingly with the 
German notions of Carlyle, Wordsworth, and other similar writers. I have seen pages of 
our periodical literature so full of these letters, or so disfigured with them, as to have almost 
a hieroglyphic appearance; and I have^ also noticed that illiterate people are apt to put 
a capital letter wherever they think it will look weU, especially when it is one that they can 
make well. 

A capital letter should begin — 

? 2. The first word of any writing whether long or short. 

Ex. — " Know all men by these presents," &c. u Of man's first disobedience 
and the fruit," &c. 

? 3. The first word of every complete sentence ; and the first 

word after i ., ?, or !, denoting a full pause. 

Ex. — '.It ^mst be filled up, — this terrible chasm. But how ? Here is a list of 
proprietor. Cho>. j from the wealthiest, in order that the smallest number of citi- 
zens may be sacrificed. But choose ! Strike ! Immolate, without mercy, these 
unfortunate victims !" — Mirabeau. But a parenthetic word that explains an initial 
capitalized word, is not therefore capitalized. " Guerillas [bands of robbers] in- 
fest the mountainous districts of Mexico." 

* The interrogation-points on the left of the page are used in stead of questions at the 
bottom. The numbers are designed for future reference, and they also point out the parts 
for exercises to be written. Every student of the class should have a blank copy-book, and 
write in it at least one original example to illustrate each important principle. 



68 ORTHOGRAPY. CAPITAL LETTERS. 

? 4. The first word of the latter part of a line broken to be- 
gin anew, and even the first word after an inferior point, — to show 
more definitely the beginning of something to which the writer 
means to draw particular attention. See the preceding page. 

Ex. — "Resolved, That we approve," &c. "Beit enacted oy the Legislature of 
New York, That a tax/' &c. u One truth is clear : Whatever is, is right." — Pope. 
" Capital letters should be used in the following instances : At the beginning," 
&o. — Bpes Sargent. 

" I am, Sir, with sincere esteem, 

"Your faithful servant, 

"Eobeet Peel." 

? 5. The first word of every separate or independent phrase, 

especially in enumeration, or when used for a complete sentence. 

Ex. — " The gunpowder overboard. Out with the boat! Here." " The friend- 
ship of Holland! The independence of Spain." — Grattan. "Indeed! What 
then?" " Select Poems of Mrs. Sigourney. 8vo. Philadelphia. 1842. Price $1.00." 
" Tq Joseph E. Brown, Esq." "Very respectfully, yours." " For Rent or Sale." 
"Total, $25." "Balance, $9.25." " Strata and laminae may be distinguished from 
joints : 1. By the alternations of different material in the former. 2. By a differ- 
ence of organic remains in the latter. 3. By ripple-marks and tortuosities. 4. By 
a difference in color of successive portions of rock." — Hitchcock's Geology. 

"To Schools, $5,785.50; 

To Bridges, 2,120.25." 

A series of elliptic questions, implying intermediate answers, may be put into one sen- 
tence with but one capital; as, "Will you repeat the prepositions beginning with at — 
with b ? — with ct — Goold Brown. But when the dash cannot well be used, as in mathematics, 
it may be better to use capitals ; though some writers do not use them. " What is £ of 5 ? 
Of 11 ? Of 15 ? Of 7 ? Of 9 r—Greenleaf. " What are the factors of 20 ? of 21 ? of 22 f • 
— Davies. 

? 6. The first word of every line of poetry, written as such, un- 
less the line is viewed as being but a part of the preceding line. 

Ex. — " Now the smiles are thicker, 

Wonder what they mean ? 

Faith, he's got the Knicker- 

Bocker magazine !" — J. G. Saxe. 

" Go to the isle whose green, beautiful border is girdled by Ocean's 

sonorous white waves." 

Whether Terse written in the form of prose should retain its capitals, usage has not pos- 
itively determined. Mr. Goold Brown sometimes retains them, and sometimes not ; as, 
"For whom, alas! dost thou prepare The sweets that I was wont to share." — Cowper. 
" To spin and to weave, to knit and to sew, were once a girl's employments; but now to 
dress, and to catch a beau, are all she calls enjoyments." — Kimball. But most other 
writers do not retain them. It is generally better, unless we wish to save space, or to pre- 
sent verse in the form of prose, to avoid such arrangement of poetic lines altogether. 

? 7. Every word, phrase, or sentence, comprising an entire saying 
of some other person, when quoted and introduced at once as it 
was said by him, or so as to imply a change of speakers. 

Ex. — "Solomon said, 'Pride goeth before destruction.'" " Kemember this 
ancient maxim : ' Know thyself.' " " He shouted, ' Victory.' " " They sent back 
the reply, 'Independence or death!'" "And, 'This to me,' he said." — Sir W. 
Scott. "Every tongue shall exclaim with heart-felt joy, Welcome! welcome! La 
Fayette." — Everett. "Caesar cried, 'Help me, Cassius, or I sink.'" " Jesus an- 
swered them, Is it not written in your law, — I said, Ye are Gods ?" — Bible. " The 
jury brought in a verdict of Not guilty." — Macaulay. "He answered, No." " The 
question, then, will naturally arise. How is the desired improvement to be effected ? 
how are the theory and practice of the art to be obtained ? We answer, By the 
most simple means ; by the very means which are so well adapted to other sub- 



ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL LETTERS. 69 

jects of learning." — Wilson's Punctuation. "Thus Cobbett observes, that l The 
French, in their Bible, say Le Verbe where we say The vVord.'' " — Goold Brown. 
" Christianity does not spread a feast before us, and then come with a ' Touch not, 
taste not, handle not.' " — Bishop Porteus. 

1 8. It is perhaps unnecessary to add, that indirect quotations or 
questions, resumed quotations, and quoted words or phrases that were 
not initial, should not begin with capitals. 

Ex. — "Solomon says, that 'pride goeth before destruction.'" "That there 
must be some such relation, is obvious ; but what is it ? and how is it to be 
known ?" " With Mr. Headly, an event always ' transpires.' " — B. A. Poe. " This 
indeed is, as Chatham says, ' a perilous and tremendous moment.' " 

As to words, phrases, or sentences, introduced for illustration, usage is unsettled. Pro- 
fessors G-. W. G-ibbs and Gessner Harrison use small letters. " To denote the second com- 
plement; as, ' the Bible teaches us that God is love.'' " — Gibbs. "E. g., non poterat effugere, 
'he could not escape.' " — Harrison. But the practice of most modern writers is other- 
wise. Professor Harrison seems to use capitals wherever he quotes, out of the litera- 
ture, parts from their beginning ; but not if he quotes otherwise, or draws from his 
own invention. " So, Ita est, 'it is even so.' " — Harrison. "These are called active or 
transitive verbs ; e. g., multa verba dixit, 'he spoke many words.' " — Id. Worcester, in his 
Dictionary, uses capital letters. " Any covering ; as, ' The coats of an onion ;' ' A coat 
of paint.' " — Worcester. " To carry or possess as a mark of authority or distinction; as, 
'To bear the sword;' ' To bear a date or name.'" — Id. Professor Fowler also prefers 
capitals ; but Mr. G-oold Brown sometimes uses them, and sometimes not. It is evident that 
much depends on the unity or compactness the writer means to give to his sentences, and 
also on what prominence he means to give to his illustrations. Distinct sentences, even 
when not separated by a full point, should generally begin with capitals. When words or 
phrases are given as altogether from the writer himself, and merely to complete his sen 
tence, or when they are rather suggested incidentally than formally quoted, capitals are un- 
necessary, though sometimes used. " Such are irregular verbs ; as, see, saw, seen ; write, 
wrote, written." 

? 9. Every term or appellation denoting trie Deity. 

Ex. — "God; the Supreme; the Most High; the Infinite One; Providence; 
Divine Providence ; great Parent of good ; the Lord of Sabaoth ; the Savior ; the 
Messiah ; the Son of man ; our Lord Jesus Christ ; the Holy Spirit ; in Christ our 
Lord. Amen; the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost." "I turn to Thee." 
"Watched by the Divine eye." " Oh, give relief, and Heaven will bless your 
store." 

An ordinary adjunct, used as a part of a name denoting the Deity, usually has 
no capital; as, "the Savior of sinners," " the Author of all good." When a word 
denotes something as merely pertaining or belonging to the Deity, it does not 
usually need a capital; as, " Thy wisdom and power made them all: they are the 
works of Thy hand.'''' 

? 10. When a pronoun, denoting the Deity, occurs in connection with its noun, 
it needs no capital, and seldom has one in American books : as, " Thy ownership 
and workmanship are God's; and thou art h is, and he made thee." — Greenwood. 
When the words god, goddess, deity, divinity, and similar terms, are applied to the 
heathen deities, they do not begin with capitals. 

? 11. Every proper name, or eacli chief word of a proper name; 
also the title, if any, preceding or following, especially when this 
stands as a part of the name. 

Ex. — "John Henry Bolton; George Washington ; General George Washing- 
ton ; Judge Wells ; Dr. Jno. B. Johnson ; Mrs. Elizabeth B. Browning ; the 
Countess of Blessington ; K. G. Woodson, Esq. ; Arthur Price, Jun., Esq. ; the 
Kev. Mr. Brookes ; Washington City." "So Master Dick went off on his trav- 
els." — O. W. Holmes. " ' You are old, Father William,' the young man replied." — 
Southey. 

? 12. Common words denoting, in the same way as personal 
proper names, personified objects, or nsed as permanent individual 



70 ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL LETTERS. 

names ; and phrases so used, as the titles of books, associations, or 
other objects, — ^are proper nouns in sense, and written accordingly. 

Ex. — "Hail, Liberty!" "O Happiness! our being's end and aim." "The 
entrance into the garden of Hope, was by two gates ; one of which was kept by 
Reason, and the other by Fancy." " Thy name is Hasty Pudding ? — thus our 
sires were wont to greet thee fuming from the fires." — Barlow. " There lay Ma- 
dam Partlet, basking in the sun, breast-high in sand." — Dry den. " This struck 
the Oak with a thought of admiration, and he could not forbear asking the 
Eeed, how he came to be so secure," etc. — ^Esop's Fables : Best Edition. " They went 
to the Butterfly's ball and the Grasshopper's feast." " The Commons, the Central 
Park, the Bay of Biscay" — Worcester; "the Pacific Ocean" — Everett; "in West- 
minster Hall" — Macaulay ' "Baffin's Bay, Bristol Bay, the White Sea, the Sea ot 
Japan, the Isle of Man, Hudson's Strait, the Gulf Stream, the Gulf of Guinea, on 
Lake Tchad" — Oxford Professor j " Oloffe the Dreamer, Alexander the Great, the 
Lake of Nicaragua, to Long and Staten Islands, in Long Island Sound, on Bunker 
Hill, to Mount Vernon, near the Cape of Good Hope, near the Five Points, the 
Rocky Mountains, the East River" — Irving; "from Prospect Hill, on Breed's 
Hill, at Moultrie's Point, beyond Charlstown JNeck" — Bancroft ; "to Pilot's Knob, 
to Council Bluffs, Fort Charles, Vancouver's Island, near Great Bear Lake, the 
White Sulphur Springs, on the Fourth, on New Year's Day, the dissensions be- 
tween the North and the South, the Know Nothings, the Radicals, the Friends, 
the Sisters of Charity, the Union Literary Society, the Milky Way, Scott's Lady 
of the Lake, Campbell's Battle of Hohenlinden, Mi. ton's Paradise Lost and Para- 
dise Regained, the first Number of the New Monthly, Dr. Mitchell's Popular As- 
tronomy"- — Sundry Authorities. Such Scotch or Irish names of mountains or lakes 
as Ben Lomond, Loch Gyle, &c, should always be written as two words, and capi- 
talized. A letter or a word used as the name of itself, is not usually capitalized. 
Mr. Goold Brown capitalizes letters so used, but not words : as, " Tee y Tees ; Ess, 
Esses;" " The pronoun who." 

? 13. It is worthy of notice, that not every personified noun is writ- 
ten with a capital, but only those which have the sense of proper names. 

Ex.— "Wave your tops, ye pines." — Milton. "Ye eagles, playmates of the 
mountain storm." — Coleridge. (Ye men of Altorf.) "Thus liberty, partially, in- 
deed, and transiently, revisited Italy." — Macaulay. (?) 

? 14. Words derived from proper names, should begin with 

capitals. 

Ex. — " American, Americanize, Americanisms, Columbian, French, Genoese, 
Latinize, Grecian, Italicize, Italics, (these two words are frequently not capitalized,) 
Christians, Christianize, Gallicisms, Hebraisms, Jesuits, .Franciscans, Jacobites, a 
Cherokee, Wesleyan, Roman, Irishman, W T elsh, Scotchman." "A Southern man 
as well as a Northern man." 

? 15. But when such a word has lost its reference to the proper 

name, and has taken its place and a meaning amoug the common 

words of the language, it is not written with a capital. 

Ex. — " In academic halls ;" " champagne, china-ware, cashmere shawls, colos- 
sal, daguerreotype, damask cheeks, godlike, a guinea, sandwiches, a good bilboa, 
to galvanize, to hector, hymeneal, jalap, laconic, laconicism, prussic acid, solar, 
lunar, turkey ;" "most somatically" — Irving. Unchristian, and similar words, ®an 
not receive neatly a capital within. 

? 16. Words of special emphasis or importance, or words pecu- 
liarly or technically applied, and not sufficiently definite if writ- 
ten otherwise, should begin with capitals. 

Ex. — " The General Assembly; the excellence of our Constitution ; our State ; 
the Coal Measures, lying next ; William Penn with several Friends ; the War 
Department; the Auditor of Public Accounts;" "the Eeform Bill" — London 
Times ; "the Missouri Compromise" — Congressional Globe. (See also above, 12.) 



ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL LETTERS. 7l 

" Education is the great business of the Institute.'" — 0. W. Holmes. " The other 
member of the Committee was the Keverend Mr. Batters, who was tornake the 
prayers before the Exercises of the Exhibition." — Id. "Every American-born 
husband is a possible President of the United States." — Id. "The Medical Col- 
lege in Mason Street." — Everett. " The disasters which this little band of Pilgrims 
encountered." — Id. "The Provincial Congress of Massachusetts." — Id. "The 
Governor of the Cape." — British Quarterly. " The guests were entertained by 
Mayor Kice, at his residence, No. 34, Union Place." — A Boston Journal. In a 
draft written by an intelligent gentleman, I see that the sum of money is capital- 
ized — "Five Hundred and Fifty-five Dollars." A large banner floats over Broad- 
wav, with this motto : " The Union, the Constitution, and the enforcement of the 
Laws.— H. Clay." 

? 17. Writers often take greater liberty in designating by capitals 

the chief objects of their own science, art, or profession, than is 

allowed to other persons treating of such things only incidentally. 

Ex. — " The Blue Bird [better — Blue-bird] of America," etc., says Audubon ; be- 
cause birds made his business of life, and so in treating of each he capitalizes the 
name. An astronomer, in treating of the solar system, says, " The Sun is the centre 
of the System." Fowler records his phrenological speculations thus : " His mu- 
sical talent is great ; for Time, Order, Calculation, and Tune, are largely developed." 
And merchants over all parts of our country do and may capitalize, in their ac- 
counts, the names of those things which constitute their business. It seems to be 
also becoming rather fashionable, to capitalize words in stead of Italicizing them ; 
and in school-books and scientific treatises, we often see their peculiar vocabulary 
made particularly prominent in this way. Perhaps the printers, to whom this 
mode of distinction gives less trouble than any other, are those who have chiefly 
introduced it. The practice is apt to run to excess, and is then akin to that of 
using the dash excessively. 

? 18. Names, titles, mottoes, or other expressions, when very 
emphatic, or when designed to catch the eye from a distance, are 
frequently printed or painted wholly in capitals. And in Advertise- 
ments and Notices, the liberty of capitalizing is carried to a great 
and almost indefinite extent. 

Ex. — Advertisement: "Just published. A Collection of Songs, Duets, Trios, 
and Choruses. Together with a New and Complete Course of Elementary Instruc- 
tion, and Lessons in Singing, for the School-room and the Social Circle. Price 
62i cents." 

? 19. The pronoun /and the interjection should always be 
capitals. 

Finally, the following rule may aid in deciding doubtful cases generally. 

? 20. Whenever any term or terms of a certain import in the 
language, are employed as a title, or merely to designate a particular 
person or thing rather than to characterize the same by their mean- 
ing, capitals are used ; otherwise not. 

Ex. — " The Infinite One ;" " the design of an infinite Creator, the law of the 
Almighty God." — John Wilson. " Either the world had a creator, or it existed by 
chance." — Prof. Gibbs. " The Green-Mountain Boys were allowed to choose their 
own officers." — Bancroft. " To Professor .Longfe.Uow, that is, to the poet Long- 
fellow." " In his Public Despatches." — Macaulay. Whether I should write, 
" Webster's Speeches" or "Webster's speeches," " Buirns's Poems" or " Barns's 
poems," depends altogether on whether I am thinking of the title or simply of the 
speeches or poems. " Gray hardly took more pains with his Elegy," not elegy. 
"I do not know, sir." " I am, Sir, very sincerely, your friend." " The Doctor 
now heard the approach of clattering hoofs." — 0. W. Holmes. " In the preface of 
his work, he says," &c. — G Brown. "In his Preface, he says," &c. — Id. 



72 ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL LETTERS. 

11 The Coast Survey Company of the United States ; the Hudson Bay Company; 
the Secretary of the Interior ; New England ; Mount Vernon ; Fort Riley; Cape May ; 
Sandy Hook -Long Island Sound ; Little Egg Harbor ; Lake Erie, Lake Ontario ; 
along lakes Erie, Ontario, and Superior ; a house in Laurel Grove — at Harper's 
Ferry (towns) ; the Senate, and the House of Representatives ; earth to earth ; the 
productions of the earth; the planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, etc. ; the sun 
and the moon ; robed in Luna's silver mantle ; the vault of heaven ; a heaven of 
bliss ; protected by Heaven ; my brother John ; John Bull to Brother Jonathan ; 

scenes of nature ; according to nature ; and Nature sighed that all was lost." 

"I have hope;" "Eternal Hope! thy joyous youth began." "We had much 
pleasure;" "My name is Pleasure." " I reside at a French village — at a place 
called French Village." " See Rule 8th, and the Notes under it." 

Familiar Illustrations and Critical Remarks. — A chapter in your 
history refers to your life ; but a chapter in your History refers rather to a book 
written and so named by you. The new Lucy is not so old a boat as the old 
Lucy, but the New Lucy may be an old boat. When I speak of the principal of 
a school, I refer to his duties; but when I speak of the Principal of a school, I 
refer to his title. The Monticello academy is an academy, in Monticello, that 
bears the name of Montrose Academy. A person may be educated at a university, 
and, while in Virginia, may visit the University. The punctuation of a book 
refers to its sentential points, but its Punctuation is one of the subjects of which 
it treats. Callaway county is usually called Callaway, but Kansas City is not 
usually called Kansas. The Ohio river is as well denoted by the Ohio, which is 
a sufficient name to call it by : but the Red River is not usually called the Red, 
nor is the Blue Ridge ever called the Blue ; for it takes the two words to make 
the name. (This, I was told in the G-lobe Office at Washington City, is the dis- 
tinction observed there ; and I see but this objection to it, namely, that the 
phrases "the Ohio river," "the Mississippi river," for instance, might be under- 
stood as meaning, like the phrase "the Virginia militia," simply the river be- 
longing to Ohio or Mississippi. " And it continues to be called Hudson river 
unto this day." — Irving. Mr. Geo. Bancroft writes, inconsistently, " in Mystic 
river, on the Neuse River, the Savannah River, within the limits of the present 
Greene county." The city of New York or New York city is generally called 
New York ; but Jersey City or Jefferson City needs both words to make the 
name. The Indian always says, " Great Spirit," or uses both words to denote 
God ; but when Pope wrote, " Thou great First Cause," he used great in its or- 
dinary descriptive sense. The King of kings shows preeminently God's relation 
to worldly kings; but the Angel of Death does not show the relation of any 
angel to death. The Devil denotes Satan ; but a devil may be simply a bad per- 
son or spirit. Macaulay writes, " They have coined out of Machiavelli's Christ- 
ian name a nickname [Nick] for the Devil;" also, "The Tempter, or the Evil 
Principle." " 'Will you walk into my parlor?' said the Spider to the Fly," de- 
notes the two as if they were Mr. A and Mr. B, or as the chief subject of the 
composition. But ^Esop's foxes, lions, mice, crows, etc., are not, in all books, hon- 
ored with capitals. A Methodist, a Republican, a Mussulman, or a Roarer, be- 
longs to some religious, political, or social sect or party. " William Penn with a 
few Friends," is very different from "William Penn with a few friends." "The 
First and the Second Sandstone," implies scientific distinction. Prof. Lyell, of 
England, writes, "the Old Red sandstone," "the Secondary series;" because, 
I suppose, in these capitalized words lies the technical distinction, and no other 
capitals are needed. The gospel denotes the Christian doctrines; but the Gos- 
pels and the Revelation denote parts of the New Testament. The phrase "Di- 
vine assistance" refers directly to God, but the phrase " divine beauty" does not. 
Missouri is a part of the South, though it is west. Such is the union of the 
States, that they are often called the Union or the United States. Van Diemen's 
Land is not the land belonging to Van Diemen. Crabbe's Prairie once was 
Crabbers prairie. Sutter's Mill is now a little town, and the mill is washed 



ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL LETTERS. *73 

away. Bolton's Ferry is a place on the Osage at which there is now no ferry 
The London Times is a newspaper; London times are something else. Thfc 
Planter's House is a hotel ; the planter's house is noted for hospitality. " Monthly- 
Meetings" are sometimes held by large and important religious societies ; and 
are considered, I suppose, more definite, formal, and important than " monthly 
meetings." When I speak of the Company or the Convention, I mean to guard 
you against thinking of the wrong one, or to make you think of a particular one. 
The Battle of the Books refers to a celebrated literary controversy. The Insur- 
rection was printed with a capital letter, only while the excitement lasted ; but 
the Revolution and the Reformation are still matters of interest, and retain their 
capitals. 

So, as the world advances, and new and stirring events are continually 
thrown up to the surface, any common word or phrase may yield itself up as a 
sort of temporary proper name ; and, when no longer needed as such, be deprived 
of its capital, and returned to the common arsenal of speech. 

Philadelphia has a mint and several colleges. I visited the Mint this morning, 
and also the College [Girard's]. "The city contains an Asylum for the Deaf, 
Dumb, and Blind, a Mint, and a City Hall," was written as if the names had 
been transcribed from the buildings themselves. The Lunatic Asylum is a partic- 
ular and distinguished institution in our State, but there are lunatic asylums in 
most parts of the world. " The expulsion of our first parents from the Garden ;" 
i. e., from Eden. I went with him to visit the Lakes ; i. e., a celebrated group 
of lakes. The "lake of the "Woods" is a lake in some famous woods, the li Lake 
of the woods" is a famous lake in woods, but the " Lake of the Woods" is sim- 
ply a lake so called. "The Erie Canal" is wholly a name ; but the " Erie and 
Ohio canal" is understood as being the canal between Lake Erie and the Ohio 
river. The Missouri railroad is a railroad in Missouri ; but the Missouri Rail- 
road could be located anywhere. We can see white mountains in almost any 
mountainous country ; but the White Mountains are in New Hampshire. The 
South Pass denotes not only a pass, but is extended in application to the sur- 
rounding country, so as to denote a locality besides. Niagara Falls means not 
merely a fall of water. Lord Jeffrey, in stead of saying, " Shakespeare," says, 
" the Poet." The phrase Old Dominion is put for the proper name Virginia. 
Macaulay writes, " The mercenary warriors of the Peninsula," applying the word 
in a specific sense, or to Spain and Portugal. The phrase " Elegy in a Country 
Church Yard" is as much the proper name of a poem as John may be the proper 
name of a boy. " I saw his Excellency the Governor at the party;" i. e., I saw 
Mr. A. there. Were I, however, to call Goldsmith's Deserted Village Gold- 
smith's great poem, I would not capitalize the latter phrase. (See 20.) " To the 
honorable legislature" is a less definite and complimentary phrase than " To 
the Honorable Legislature." The London Times says, " Her Majesty, the Prince 
Consort, the Bride, the Prince of Wales, and the other members of the Royal 
Family were there." Common folks would not have been thus honored with 
capitals. I should rather speak of myself as the author than as the Author, for 
fear people should think I set too high a value on my production, or on the class 
of persons to which I belong. But, if I were president of the United States, I 
should, considering the great and admitted dignity of the office, speak of myself 
as the President. I should begin my letter with this address, — " My dear 
Friend," " My dear Sir," " Dear Sir," " Dear Uncle," or " My dear Aunt Mary," 
&c. Judge Story writes, " My dear Sir:", »' My Dear Sir :", " My dear Wife :"; 
Dr. Holmes, "My dear Professor, — "; Sydney Smith, "Dear Jeffrey,", "My 
dear Mr. Jeffrey,"; the Quarterly Review has, " My Dear Friend,". 

A Cambridge Professor speaks of his Essay in referring to a book called 
Cambridge Essays ; and, having introduced Captain Marryatt, he afterwards 
speaks of him as the Captain, and not as the captain. Our Club, President, 
Secretary, and Treasurer, are such in title as well as in fact. u Book I, Part 



74 ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Second ; Etymology, Remark, Observation, Names of Deity, Rules concerning 
Examples and Quotations," refer to particular parts or headings of the book. 
An accurate grammarian writes, " Murray, in his Grammar, says, &c. — The 
Critic, a Newspaper." An Act of Congress is not like an act of a rope-dancer, 
and of greater importance. A governor is not necessarily a Governor ; nor a 
supreme court, a Supreme Court ; nor the fifth street, Fifth Street. "Our Con- 
stitution" does not refer to our health, nor does " our State" refer to our condi- 
tion. We may speak, however, in general terms, of the states, empires, and 
kingdoms of the earth ; and dukes, kings, emperors, queens, consuls, presidents, 
judges, mayors, directors, commissioners, councilmen, etc., are all subject to the 
same rules in respect to capital letters. I am aware that it is rather dangerous 
to admit the principle of capitalizing words merely because they are deflected in 
sense ; but, to some extent, the principle must be admitted, or, I should rather 
say, is already established. I find, in my reading, " the cane-brakes of the state 
of Louisiana" — Bancroft; u the union of the States" — Everett; "used in Louisi- 
ana and some neighboring states" — Worcester ; " the people in his own state" — 
Bryant; "the States of Italy" — Macaulay ;" "in the service of a single state" — 
Id. : but, if the North, South, East, and West, make the United States, I think 
one of these is a State, especially as " the state of Virginia," for instance, may 
mean how Yirginia is. I find also, — when the idea is universally considered, 
or "unified," — " He is a member of the bar" — Worcester; " Eor the Bar or the 
Pulpit" — Mandeville ; " Who kills by the sword, shall die by the sword" — Bible ; 
" The Song is in poetry, what the Essay is in prose" — Atlantic Monthly ; "In 
ancient times, the State supported the Oracle" — Oxford Professor; "These con- 
templative views of Nature and Man" — Id. : but such capitalizing should be in- 
dulged in very sparingly. " Have we lifted up our eyes to Him who is Love, 
Light, and Truth, and Bliss" — Prof Wilson. (See also 9.) Mr. Hawthorne says 
of an Italian statue, "Here, likewise, is seen a symbol (as apt at this moment as 
it was two thousand years ago) of the Human Soul, with its choice of Innocence 
or Evil close at hand, in the pretty figure of a child clasping a dove to her bo- 
som, but assaulted by a snake." (See also 12.) Prof. Silliman writes, " The 
Flora of Australia has justly been regarded the most remarkable in the world ;" 
" The European and Australian floras seem to me to be essentially distinct." I 
find, furthermore, "from Catharine-street" — London Times; "near William 
street, in Mulberry-street" — Irving ; "in Chatham-street" — Greeley ; "in Grand 
street" — Bryant; "at the corner of Union street and Hanover street" — Everett; 
"No. 22, School Street" — John Wilson, of Boston; "at a lawyer's office, in 
Nassau Street, New York" — Atlantic Monthly. The compounding of the two 
words makes the most exact term ; the use of two capitals is more in accord- 
ance with analogy; (see 12 ;) but the last mode of expression is becoming per- 
haps most common. What I have shown and said in reference to streets, may 
also be noticed in reference to several other kinds of not very important objects, 
especially when the ordinary meaning of the word is still prominent. " We 
passed the Antelope hills, Gray creek, and Rocky Dell- creek. "— ET. S. Survey of 
R. R. Route to the Pacific. (?) In English newspapers I generally find such 
words compounded ; as, Spring-gardens, Leicester -place, Hampden-street, Fourth- 
street; "Arklow-house, Connaught-place, June 18th" There seems to be a tend- 
ency to consider what figure the object makes in the writer's composition, or in 
the great affairs of the world; and, if it is not a matter of much. interest or im- 
portance, to use small letters, or not more capitals than are absolutely necessary 
to distinguish the object from others of the same kind. 

When earth, heaven, and hell, are spoken o£ as habitations, small letters gen- 
erally begin the words ; though some writers urge that when the latter two 
places denote the abodes of the blessed and of the miserable, they are always 
proper names, and should begin with capitals; and I find, in my reading, 
" Sleep on, and dream of Heaven a while ;" " Frail child of earth 1 high heir of 



ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITAL LETTERS. 7o 

heaven !" Heaven and Hell, and some other such terms, as used by Milton, in 
Paradise Lost, should doubtless begin with capitals, being used in a somewhat 
unusually specific sense : they form a part of his ''machinery. 1 ' When Muses, 
Graces, Xaiads, etc., are conceived in the splendor of ancient imagination, they 
are generally favored with capitals ; but our own fairies, fays, gnomes, sylphs, 
hobgoblins, etc., are rather too puny in idea to be thus distinguished. The 
words spring, summer, fall, autumn, winter, time, eternity, seasons, morning, 
evening, noon, day, night, and many other individual terms, — such as earth, 
heaven, hell, sun, moon, stars, world, universe, nature, space, equator, zodiac, 
ecliptic, north, south, east, west, etc., — when used in their most ordinary sense, or 
when their meaning predominates, are not usually capitalized ; but when they 
are used in a somewhat technical or peculiar sense, when they are personified, 
or when the objects are to be honorably distinguished, the words are capitalized. 
The terms Pandemonium, Tartarus, Elysium, Gardens of the Hesperides, Ely- 
sian Fields, are of course proper names. Lord's Day is equivalent to Sunday. 
New Year's Day, the Fourth, Good Friday, or any other holiday, is as much a 
particular day as Sunday, Monday, or any other day of the week. 

After all, something must be left to taste, or to the nice intuitive perceptions 
of the writer; and the two extremes of custom in regard to capital letters, may 
be briefly summed up thus : — 

a. Any particular place, time, object, office, officer or functionary, asso- 
ciation, writing, building, science, art, or great event, should be distinguished 
by capital letters. 

b. Only initial words, I and 0, titles and proper names, or what is used 
in the same way, should be thus distinguished. 

The following principles may be added in regard to phrases and sentences : — 

? 21. A new proper name made from an old one, by the addition of 
some common word. Capitals. 

Ex. — " Orleans, New Orleans; Cambridge, East Cambridge ; New Hampshire; 
Governor Clinton ; Jetferson City ; Ehode Island ; Miller's Lauding ; Upper Can- 
ada ; Astor House ; Mount Mitchell ; Kansas Territory ; Japan Sea ; Lisle 
Town; the Gulf of Mexico." This and the following are" ruling principles, and 
fail to hold good only when the objects are rather insignificant. 

? 22. One or more common words, — usually, a noun and an adjective, 
a noun and an adjunct, a noun and a possessive, a noun and its appositive, 
a phrase or a sentence, — raised to the dignity of a proper name for a par- 
ticular object. Capitals. 

Ex. — "The Park; Salt Eiver ; Salt Lake; Big Sandy; Sandy Hook; Land's 
End ; the Cape of Good Hope ; the Mountains of the Moon ; the Laurel Hills ; a 
hill called Cedar Crest; the United States; the Western States; the Little Belt; 
the Old South Church ; Citv Police ; Post Office ; the Know Nothings ; a book 
called— The Temple of Truth." 

? 23. In capitalizing entire sentences or Italic head-lines, distin- 
guish, by capitals, the nouns ; for the sake of greater distinction, the 
nouns, the qualifying adjectives, the participles, and other prominent 
words, and always write the mere particles small. 

Ex. — " Our observations may be comprised under the following heads : Proper 
Loudness of Voice ; Distinctness ; Slowness ; Propriety of Pronunciation ; Emphasis ; 
Tones ; and Mode of Beading Verse." — E. G-. Parker. " Episcopal Lnnovation ; or, 
the > Test of Modern Orthodoxy in Eighty-seven Questions, imposed as Articles of 
Faith, upon Candidates for Licenses and Holy Orders, in the D'wcese of Peterborough ,' 
with a distinct Answer to each Question, and General Reflections relative it their Il- 
legal Structure and Pernicious Tendency." — Sydney Sauta. 



76 ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITxVL LETTERS. 

General Direction" for Correcting. — First, read distinctly, as it is, what 
is to be corrected ; condemn it; take a convenient erroneous portion, say what it 
should be, and give the reason by stating the principle violated ; and, finally, read 
the corrected example. For greater fullness, say, when convenient, that the er- 
roneous part with such properties or such a meaning, should be so with such 
properties, such a meaning, or for such a purpose ; because, etc. 



Examples to be Corrected. 

Formula. — Incorrect : the word , beginning with a small , should 

begin with a capital ; because . (Give the precept violated, as pre- 
sented on some preceding page ; and vary the Formula when a variation is 
needed.) 

Congress authorized gen. Washington to appoint an officer to take charge of 
the southern district. When Laud was arraigned, " can any one believe me a 
traitor," exclaimed the astonished prelate. — Bancroft. The blood of those who 
have Fallen at concord, lexington, and bunker's hill, cries aloud, " it is time to 
part." Three cheers were given for the '^champion of the south." '" The bible 
says, children, obey your parents. A hundred presbyterian ministers preached 
every Sunday in Middlesex. There was no Church to-day at middle grove. In 
Benton's thirty years you can find this Statement. All these pleas are overruled 
the moment a lady adduces her irrefragable argument, you must. Daniel Web- 
ster, secretary of state. At fort black Hawk." He Knew general la Fayette 
and captain Phipps. He was first a Captain and then a General. This Chief 
had the sounding appellation of- white thunder. Washington city, the Capital 
of the United states, is in the district of Columbia. He is now president of 
Westminster college, and was formerly principal of Montrose academy. While 
every honest tongue "stop thief!" resounds. To this I answer, no. The answer 
may be, yes or no. The president lives in the white house. These Birds go 
South in Winter, but return in Spring or Summer. I saw, at the same time, 
a person called fraud, behind the counter, with false scales, light weights, and 
scanty measures. Falsehood let the arms of sophistry fall from her grasp, and, 
holding up the shield of impudence with both her hands, sheltered herself among 
the passions. — id. The first melting of Lead Ore in this county was in a rude 
log furnace. This is especially true of Elm and Hickory land. Dam spiro, 
spero ; while I breathe, I hope. The question is. which of them can best pay 
the penalty ? Be it enacted by the legislature of Ohio, that the taxes, etc. Lind- 
ley -murray says, "when a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a 
Capital is unnecessary-; as, solomon observes, ' That Pride goeth before destruc- 
tion.'" — octavo grammar, P. 284. At length, the comprehension bill was sent 
down to the commons. To the honorable the president and the house of conven- 
tion. He was President of the jnassachusetts historical society, the Editor of 
a few volumes of its historical collections, and a Contributor to the Boston daily 
advertiser. The author of the Task was ft good Poet. Some welsh emigrants 
who were zealous christians. Put the first line in roman letters, and italicize 
the other. The mexican leader was don antonio de lopez de santa anna.. She 
is gone to him that comforteth as a mother comforteth. The hand that made us, 
is divine. Here is the village of beaver meadow ; also imauch chunk, or bear 
mountain, broad and spring mountains, bald ridge, and- pine hills, are here. 
This swamp was called the shades of death, by the sufferers from Wyoming. 
There dwelt a sage called discipline. He flattered himself that the tories might 
be induced to make some concessions to the dissenters, on conuition that the 
whigs would be lenient to the Jacobites. Men may be divided, intellectually, 
into the following classes : tho great, the extraordinary, the ordinary, the imita- 
tive, the energetic, the mediocre, the feeble/ the small, and the dull. Monroe 



ORTHOGRAPHY. SYLLABLES. 77 

house ; Martha's vineyard ; lake Champlain ; little Peedee ; Cook's inlet ; Pe- 
nobscot bay; mount Zion; mount Yernon ; east indies; the white sea; the 
Indian ocean; Bunker hill; Harper's ferry; Jersey city; Charleston City ; the 
City of Cincinnati ; in the County of Cole ; Appollo garden ; Lafayette place ; 
Boone County; the Prophet Isaiah; King Solomon; the Evangelist Matthew. 
The Gulf stream ; the G-ulf-Stream waters ; the New-york Fire insurance Com- 
pany. Some of the Bottom Prairies of the Missouri are thirty miles long. 
The work is admirably adapted to the use of common schools, — 
by thorough and varied exercises ; 
by frequent and complete reviews ; 
by simplicity of terms and arrangement. 
See art's fair Empire o'er our shores advance. 
I hate when vice can bolt her arguments, 
and virtue has no tongue to check her pride. — Milton. 
Pair science frowned not on his bumble birth, 
And melancholy marked him for her own. — Gray. 
Our Clifford was a noble Youth. — Wordsworth. 

SYLLABLES. 

What is a syllable ? A word? A monosyllable ? A dissyllable? A trisyllable ? A poly- 
syllable ? See p. 1. 

? 24. Every syllable must consist of one or more vowels, or of 
one or more vowels enclosed on one or both sides by one or more 
consonants. 

Ex. — 0, i-dle, au-gQr, ba-ker, broil] an, ants; dot, shrill, br^sts, shat-tered. 

? 25. What is put to the beginning of a word to modify its 

meaning, is termed a prefix ; to the end, a suffix ; and the part 

which receives the prefix or the suffix, is called the root, or radical. 

Ex. — Plant, r^-plant, £ra?is-plant, im-rA&nt', act, act-cr, act-ive, zok-ivity ; great, 
greats ; Mend, friend-sAip ; form, re-form-ation,. 

? In dividing words into their syllables, we are guided chiefly by 
the ear. 

? 26. We should give to every syllable precisely those letters 

which the correct pronunciation of the word gives to it. 

Ex. — Su-prem-a-cy, il-lit-er-ate, pro-cras-tin-ate, mil-li-ner-y, pref-ace, as-tron- 
o-my, rev-e-la-tion, oth-er, es-quire, val-e-tu-di-na-ri-an, ma-ter-nal, bas-ket, bar-ber, 
bur-nish, twin-kle, ho-ri-zon, men-tal, Hel-en, Eob-ert, E-liz-a-beth. 

To write burn-ish, blanlt-et, esquire, as Webster sometimes divides these and similar words, might 
suggest that the words are derived from burn, blank, and squire. 

? 27. Words should generally be divided according to their pre- 
fixes, suffixes, or grammatical endings, if they have any ; and . com- 
pound words should be divided into their simple ones. 

Ex. — Ke-new, ring-let, great-er, wis-est, sin-ful, ful-ly, Bkil-less, grass-y, rent* 
ed, drill-ing, weav-er, mill-wheel, boat-swain, fore-most, whos-ever, wher-ever, 
an-other. 

? 28. When derivation and pronunciation conflict, the division 

must be made according to the pronunciation. 

Ex. — x\p-a-thy, not .a-path-y ; rec-ol-lec-tion (remembrance), big-a-my, as-cribe, 
pred-i-cate, in-del-i-nite, ther-mom-e-ter. 



78 ORTHOGRAPHY. SPELLING. 

? 29. A word having more syllables than one, may be divided at 
the end of a line, but only at the close of a syllable. See this page. 

• The part in either line should consist of at least more letters than one, 
and be of such a nature that it is not likely to be misconceived at the 
first impression. 

Such words as a-long, a-gain, o-lio, craft-?/, read-y, curve-d, curv-ed, give-n, 
safe-r, and rliyme-r, should rather stand wholly in one line ; and such words as 
accomplices, accompli-ces, advantages, should rather be divided accom-plices, advan- 
tages. 

? 30. Two or more words expressing but one conception, or 
habitually used together as the term for one object or idea, should 
be compounded. 

Ex. — Steamboat, railroad, starlight, beehive, knitting-needle, spelling-book. 

Tell tohether primitive, derivative, or compound; also whether a monosyllable, a dissyl- 
lable, a trisyllable, or a polysyllable : — 

Man, manhood, man-eater, management, confidential, uninformed, uninflam- 
mable, penitentiary, nevertheless, horseman, Mussulman, nightingale, whereabout. 

From what derived : — 

Lilies, knives, greater, authorize, farthest, speaks, speaking, applied, written, 
frosty, inequality, unprepared, happiest, personification, insensibleness. 

Mention the prefixes and the suffixes : — 

Unbought, unworthy, imperfect, artist, artful, reconstruct, fortify, fortification, 
overflow, bespattering, fascination, disproportionably, unpremeditated. 

Divide into syllables : — 

Another, luscious, varnish, tickle, musket, extraordinary, possession, monkey, 
western, paternal, reformation, recollect, recreate, impetus, impotence, grafter, 
rafter, charter, chanter, waiter, traitor, colony, felony, pitcher, lounger, noisy, 
sorcery, gallery, artery, chilling, willing, killing, azure, nation, siren, brisket, 
associate, pronunciation, athwart, Ariadne, Diana. 

Correct the following : — 

Plan-ting, un-loa-ding, ma-keth, sto-ring, or-ga-ni-zing, e-squire, syst-em, mig- 
ht, swif-test, go-vern, cons-ti-tu-tion, va-le-tu-di-na-ri-an, mark-et, stor-my. 

A white washed house. Double entry book keeping. I saw a humming bird 
and heard a mocking bird. A white oak, a sugar 'tree, and a slippery elm. Five 
gallon kegs and three foot measures. Some glass-houses are made in glass houses. 

SPELLING. 

? Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper let- 
ters. This art must be learned chiefly from spelling-books, dictiona- 
ries, and observation in reading. 

Our language having been formed from several others, its words are often 
spelled very irregularly, and sometimes differ widely from the pronunciation ; so 
that scarcely any useful rules can be given, except a few for spelling derivative 
words. 

Rule I —Doubling. 

? 31. Words of one syllable, ending in a single consonant pre- 
ceded by a single vowel ; and words of more syllables, ending in the 
same way, with the accent fixed on the last syllable, — double the 
consonant before a vowel in the derivative word. 

In other cases, no doubling takes place. 

Ex. — 1. Sad, sadder, saddest; rebel, rebelled, rebeller, rebelling, rebellion ; fop, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. SPELLING. 79 

foppish, foppery ; quit, quitting, acquittal ; in, inner; up, upper; wit, witty, witti- 
cism ; quiz, quizzed, Ex ception: Gas, gases or gasses. 

2. Seal, sealed ; call, called ; gild, gilded; hard, harder, hardest; infer, infer- 
ence ' travel, traveled, traveling, traveler ; bias, biased; worship, worshiping; tax, 
tojW, ta<?s. X final = two consonants, ks or ^ y therefore it is never doubled. 

Tell the difference between — 

Robed and robbed ; striped and stripped ; hoping and hopping ; Ja r^d and barred ; 
doting aud dotting ; sparing and sparring ; fated and fatted ; pining and pinning ; 
puling and pulling ; raged and ragged ; wagi?ig and wagging ; planing and ^<m- 
m'ra? ; Affter and hatter ; spiting and spitting ; spited and spitted; scared and scarred ; 
biding and bidding. 

Some good writers double £ in the derivatives of the following words : — 
Apparel, bevel, bowel, cancel, carol, cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, disbevil, 
drivel, duel, embowel, enamel, empanel, equal, gambol, gravel, grovel, handsel, hatch el, 
impanel, imperil, jewel, kennel, label, level, libel, marshal, marvel, model, panel, parcel, 
pencil, peril, pistol, pommel, quarrel, ravel, revel, rival, rowel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, 
tassel, trammel, travel, tunnel, unravel, victual. "Traveller" — Prescott, Bryant; "mar- 
vellous, carolled" — Irving ; "worshipping" — Bancroft. Tbese writers were so taught in 
youth ; hence their practice : but such doubling is against analogy, and generally un- 
necessary. 

Sometimes, however, I, and perhaps p, may be doubled, to prevent the lia- 
bility of mistaking the word for some other ; as, Gravelly from gravel, — gravely 
from grave ; kidnapper from kidnap. 

A few words from the Latin are derived according to the Latin primitive, 
and not according to the English ; as, Metal (Lat. metallum), metallic, metal- 
lurgy ; inflame, inflammation ; excel, excellent ; appeal, appellant. 

Rule II -Final Y. 

? 32. Y final, preceded by a consonant and followed by any 

letter except i, is changed into i in the derivative word. 

Ex. — Fly, flies ; glory, glories, glorify, glorified, glorifying, glorification ; try, 
trial; bury, burial; merry, merrily, merriment; pity, pitiable; ivy, ivied. 



Exceptions: The derivatives of sly, dry, and shy ; as, slyly, dryly, , 
but Noah Webster and Goold Brown prefer to make these conform with the^Eule'. 

? 33. Y final, preceded by a vowel, or followed by i, remains 
unchanged in the derivative word. 

Ex. — Boy, boys ; gay, gayer, gayest, gayety ; cry, cried, cryiny, crier ; allay, al- 
layed, allaying-, buoy, buoyant, buoyancy ; destroy, destroyer, destroying ; annoy, 
annoyance ; chimney, chimneys ; joy, joyful. 

Exceptions : Pay, paid; say, said ; lay, laid; day, daily; stay, staid (re- 
mained, stayed (checked). 

Rule III— Final E. 

! 34. E final, when silent, is rejected before a vowel in the de- 
rivative word. 

Ex. — Bite, biting ; force, forced, forcing, forcible ; grieve, grievance, grievous ; 
blue, bluish; rogue, roguish ; rattle, rattling ; but be, being. 

1 35. But when necessary to preserve the pronunciation or iden- 
tity of the word, it is retained. 

Ex. — Ylee, fleeing; agree, agreeable ; singe, singeing; trace, traceable; swinge. 
swi/ngeing ; courage, courageous ; mile, mileage ; blue, bluey=bluish ; sue, " sueing. 
Better, — " suing,'''' as we always write construe, construing. 

Tell the difference between — 

Vying and dyeing ; singing and singeing ; swinging and swingeing. 



80 ORTHOGRAPHY.— SPELLING. 

? 36. Words ending in ie change i into y, before i, to prevent the 
doubling of i. 

Ex. — Die, dying ; vie, vying; tie, tying ; lie, lying. 

? 37. E final is retained before a consonant in the derivative 

word. 

Ex. — Base, baseless, basement; rue, rueful; definite, definitely, definiteness , 
eye, eyelet; shoe, shoeless; perverse, perversely; whole, wholesome, wholesomely, 
wholesale ; release, releasement. 

? 38. But when not necessary to preserve the pronunciation of 

the word, it is sometimes rejected. 

Ex. — Due, duly ; true, truly ; awe, awful: also * judge ,' judgment ; lodge, lodg- 
ment, &c. ; because the d always softens the g, and renders the e unnecessary. 

Rule IV.— Whether Ize or Ise. 

? 39. If the word has a kindred meaning without the ending, or 
with a different ending, add ize; if not, ise. 

Ex. — Author, authorize ; civil, civilize ; theory, theorize ; dramatist, dramatize; 
organ, organize. Revise, compromise, enterprise, surprise. 

This Rule has some exceptions, as criticise, exercise, assize ; yet I think it may -well be 
applied to all words of tins class still unsettled in orthography, and to such as may be formed 
hereafter. Some highly respectable modern British authors, perhaps to show their learning, 
use ise in almost every instance. 

Eule V.~ ITo Trebling. 

? 40. The final letter may remain or be doubled, but not trebled, 

in the derivative word. 

Ex. — Harmless, harmlessly ; odd, oddly ; possess, possession, not possesssion ; 
fall, fully, not fullly ; stiff, stiffness ; chaff, chaffinch • bliss, blissful; ill, illness ; 
dull, dullness ; tall, tallness. We find treeen and gallless ; but these words should 
have the hyphen, — tree-en, gall-less. 

Rule VI.— Compounds. 

? 41. When simple words form compounds, they generally retain 

their own letters, especially if a hyphen still separates them. 

Ex. — Barefoot, housewife, lady-like, party-spirit, well-grounded, hasty-pud- 
ding, thereabouts, juryman, whereby, wherein, whereunto, wherefore, wherewith, 
whereon. But * where', wherever ; whose, whosever ; sheep, shepherd; feet, fet- 
lock ; pass, pastime ; newly made, new-made. 

? 42. One I from 11 is frequently dropped ; and the apostrophe 

in possessives always, when there is no hyphen. 

Ex. — Always, welcome, handful, fulfill, heartshom, boatsman : and according to 
Dr. Worcester, and some of the best of our old living writers, wilful, skilful, ful- 
ness, dulness, chilness, instalment, inthralment ; but I should rather be governed 
here by analogy, and prefer, as Dr. Webster does, skillful, willful, fullness, dull- 
ness, chillness, installment, inthrallment. See the preceding Rule. 

Rule VII —Final F, L, or S. 

? 43. Monosyllables ending with /, I, or 5, preceded by a single 
vowel, double the final consonant. All other words ending with any 
other consonant, in the same way, do not. 

v Ex. — Skiff, off, hill, shall, bliss, grass ; car, drug, nod, mob. 



ORTHOGRAPHY, SPELLING. 81 

Exceptions: As, gas, has, was, yes, his, is, this, us, pus, thus, nil, sol, sal 
(salt), bul (flounder). 

Exceptions : Abb (yarn), ebb, add, odd, egg", jagg, ragg (stone), inn, err, 
burr, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz, yarr ; and some proper names, as Dodd, ETor/g, Pitt, 
Prescott. The verbs mimic, physic, and traffic, must assume k with an ending that 
needs it to preserve the sound ; as, Mimicked, trafficking. 



? F'v& sometimes changed into v, in derivatives; as, Knife, knives ; mischief, 
mischievous. 

? An apostrophe prevents the effect of a Rule; as, Fancy, fancied, fancy 1 d; 
Mary, Marys ; fly, fly's. 

Always c-ei, never c-ie ; always c-ian for the person who; eleven e-fies — arefy, 
calefy, defy, hnmefy, liquefy, madefy, putrefy, rarefy, stupefy, tabefy, torrefy ; all 
the others are i-fles ; and as to a-bles and i-bles, look sharply and remember. 

? . Some words may be spelled in two or more different ways, with 

good authority for each. 

Ex. — Keg, cag; plough, plow; inquire, enquire; flection, flexion; connection, 
connexion ; night, height ; centre, center ; metre, meter ; hominy, homony, hoin- 
mony; moccasin, moccason ; musquito, mosquito, muscheto, &c. 

? 44. Some letter or letters of a word are sometimes omitted, 
and what is left is sometimes changed and combined with another 
word. Such shortening is called contraction. 

An apostrophe (') is usually put in the place of the letter or letters omitted. 

Ex. — Th' or V, for the ; 'in, am; 7 rt, art ; 're, are ; 's, is, us, or has ; 've, have; 
'd, had or would ; '11, tcill; ma'am, madam ; n't, not ; don't, do not ; won't, will not ; 
doesn't, does not ; shan't, shall not — Addison; can't, can not ; 7 t, it; 'tis n't, it is 
not; 'tis or it's, it is; 'gan, began; pr'ythee, I pray thee; couldn't, could not; 
'cause, because; e'en, even; e'er, ever; ne'er, never ; o'er, over ; whate'er, what- 
ever; 'em, them; 'gainst, against ; 'bove, above; 'midst, am,idsi ; 'neath, beneath; 
wi', with; i', in; o', of; o'clock, of the clock. 

1 45. A word is sometimes severed by an intervening word. Such 

separation is called tmesis. 

Ex. — " To us ww?^"=Toward us. " On which side soever" =On whichsoever 
side. "The live day long-^The livelong day. 

? Generally speaking, spelling and pronunciation are the better, 

the better they agree, and serve to distinguish words that differ in 

meaning. 

Exercises in Spelling. 

Most of the following words are those which I have found spelled erroneously in the compositions 
of students, on sign-boards, in letters received, and in the newspapers and other hasty literature of 
our country. The exercises may also teach the student where the dangers of spelling lurk. 

Spell the following words, and occasionally give the Rule where one applies : — 

Skating, sliding, striving, druggist, forcible, pottage, quarries, rubbed, 
equaled, hoarseness, agonized, profited, benefited, allotted, gayety. witticisms, 
confessedly, valuable, usage, chastisement, steadily, steadfast, laziness, till, un- 
til, ruling, dreaded, truly, recurred, recurrence, conferred, conference, prefer- 
red, preferable, preference, embodiment, whiggery, fulfilled, lodging, listlessly, 
dronish. almost, very, welcome, villain, vilify, shipped, paid, ceaseless, daily, 
servilely, irreconcilably, affiance,' denial, syllabic, parallelogrammical, parallel- 
ogrammatie, improvements, moneyed, chillness, referred, reference, Italicize, 
modernized, wagon, offered, colonized, hackneyed, movables, desirable, bap- 



02 ORTHOGRAPHY. SPELLING. 

tized, valleys, wearisome, seated, 'quizzed, galloped, civilization, runner, use- 
ful, intermittent, realize, vying, unshrubbed, salable, aggregate, indispensably, 
belligerent, plausible, privilege, accompaniment, buzz, hum, replied, loneliness, 
portrayed, regretted, getting, transferable, transferree, messmate, parish, snap- 
pish, millinery, slavish, curable, tunable, tamable, welfare, thereby, wherever, 
thereafter, pastime, sometimes, something, opportunity, misstate, misspell, mis- 
spend, gemmed, webbed, haggard, sinner, snobbish, terseness, fringing, corse- 
let, fusible, sedgy, smoky, ridgy, swimmer, dragged, bluish, stylish, gluing, 
blurred, smutty, hedge-row, festering, disbursement, piquant, obliquely, pro- 
peller, pommel, remittance, revival, contrivance, rehearsal, debatable, com- 
muning, pennyweight, perversely, alcoholize, generalissimo, clergyman, per- 
sonification, thriftily, fortieth, whetted, demurrer,' sluggish, grievous, proselyt- 
ism, parallelism, vandalism, galvanize, magnetize, anglicize, knobby, liquefiable, 
charmer, visitor, realist, squatter, broad-brimmed, dullness, pitiable, penniless, 
likelihood, handicraft, merchandise, organization, worshipers, cities, jockeys, 
dizziness, gruffly, scaly, solely, wholly, doublings, hying, spied, spy-glass. 

Equivalent Sounds, 

? In orthograpny, we are most liable to err wherever a different spell- 
ing would produce the same, or nearly the same, sound. 

? Different vowels or different vowel combinations frequently produce 
the same sound. 

• Different consonants are sometimes equivalent in sound. 

? The single and the doubled consonant are often equivalent in sound. 

Spell the following words: Brier, friar, actor, instructor, arbiter, parlor 
survivor, fibre, inventor, cellar, elixir, proprietor, scholar, martyr, mortar, 
receiver, conqueror, regulator, grammar, brazier, grasier, beverage, porridge, 
selvage, dependent, defendant, tranquillity, gentility, vitiate, vicious, ancient, 
transient, noxious, musician, conscious, cetaceous, provincial, prudential, inured, 
encroaching, incumbent, encountered, inculcate, include, entirely, intrude, en- 
joyment, gem, jet dressed, distressed, chest, assessed, relinquish, extinguish, 
bombasin, magazine, submarine, mandarin, chancellor, shalloon, control, en- 
roll, patrol, appellant, membranous, tyrannous, herring, harass, embarrass, sense, 
pence, defense, license, district, description, sacrifice, criticise, conducive, de- 
fensive, intercede, supersede, fleece, geese, idiosyncrasy, secrecy, hypocrisy, 
nutritious, delicious, sententious, reflection, complexion, chronology, crystal, 
chocolate, saccharine, kitchen, martin, curtain, fragment, raiment, separate, 
degenerate, exhilarate, dereliction, predilection, irreligious, sacrilegious, repent- 
ance, dependence, succeed, precede, secede, proceed, regale, prevail, prepare, 
impair, despair, compare, sneak, shriek, brevier, veneer, revere, buccaneer, 
financier, shote, float, dote, naught, groat, sought, awkward, though, through, 
tough, slough, cough, hiccough, miscellaneous, ceremonious, weasel, weevil, 
extirpate, foeman, yeoman, nuisance, sieve, receive, mien, relieve, seize, receipt, 
lien, ceiling, genteel, repeal, tearful, cheerful, screech-owl, lurched, perched, 
searched, gauge, business, gourd, hoard, horde, sword, brew, glue, labor, error, 
deposit, composite, dactyl, ductile, chlorite, formula, anomaly, paroxysm, caus- 
able, vendible, feasible, seizable, boisterous, disastrous, incumbrance, protuber-. 
ance, cemetery, cerulean, ethereal, grandeur, nucleus, odious, analysis, paralysis, 
soothe, smooth, blowze, chouse, rheumatism, diphthong, public, monastic, logic, 
click, target, braggard, exaggerate, refrigerate, garrison, orison, partisan, parti- 
sanship, visible, admissible, copy, poppy, radish, reddish, declamatory, inflam- 
matory, pontiff, pontifical, retaliate, palliate, diligence, intelligence, ballad, 
salad, balance, bilious, billiards, postillion, vermilion, rebellion, battalion, fallacy, 
policy, millennial, iniquity, impanel, innuendo, cabin, cabbag©, reconnoiter, 



DERIVATION OF WORDS. 83 

recommend, centre, theatre, horrid, florid, crystallize, immortalize, satellite, 
tyrannize, drizzly, grisly, tansy, frenzy, buttress, mattress, matrass, caterpillar, 
rapper, rapid, bigot, maggot, garret, claret, stopper, proper, copper, fodder, 
soder, valid, pallid, dissyllable, trisyllable, tussle, rustle, tenant, pennant, tiny, 
finny, gizzard, wizard, threshold. 

? The most ludicrous blunders are usually made by the misapplication 

of those words which agree in pronunciation, but differ in spelling and 

meaning. 

Formula. — Incorrect : the word (spell, pronounce, and define), is here mistaken for 

r (spell, pronounce, and define). 

Correct the errors : The Roman augers pretended to foretell future events. 
He sold all his manners for a small sum. Miners are not allowed to vote here. 
The weather may be easily distinguished by a small belle. The benches were 
all in tears, one above another. My boots are well-souled, and full of tax. We . 
intend to start a weakly paper here. I used my toe for wadding. The oar was 
completely melted. The wind blue away the blew smoke. His bier was to 
him, not only drink, but food and lodging. The apothecary sold him six pains 
for fifty cents. Hawks pray on other birds. The beach stood on the beech. 
The flour was kept fresh in a pitcher of water. Cleaning and dying done here, 
according to order. The cobbler put his all into his pocket. My dear Ant. 
She had many airs to inherit the estate. She went with her bow to church. 
Do you like currents with cream and sugar ? He sewed all the seed. They 
drank all the champaign. The judge immediately baled the prisoner. The mar- 
tial had a very marshal look. He put the whole prophet into his pocket. The 
capital is always situated in the capitol. The bridal was in the barn. The 
desert was brought in by a sprightly mulatto. His reward was greater than 
his dessert. The principle is sick. I will right the write word. His chin was 
soon heeled. She rung all the close. The quire sung very well. Every boll 
on the place is filled with milk. His vices were all bought by some other black- 
smith. The veins are governed by the wind. All these barrels are for sail, at 
ten o'clock. He was bread for the church. 

4. DERIVATION OF WORDS. 

This section belongs partly to Orthogrophy and partly to Etymology, or lies between them. 

? Words are either primitive (or radical), derivative, or com- 
pound. 

? The elements of words, in regard to meaning, are roots, prefixes, 
and suffixes. 

? Hoots are either native or foreign, and sometimes much dis- 
guised. 

We have not room in this book to treat of the roots of onr language, except to define incident- 
ally and briefly a few of the most common. 

? 46. The same root may frequently be combined with several 

different prefixes or suffixes, or have more than one at the same time, 

or be combined with some other root. 

Ex. — Struct (build), instruct, construct, re-con str uct ; thermos (heat), metron 
(measure), thermometer. 

? Prefixes usually modify the sense, without changing the part 
of speech. 



84 DERIVATION OF WORDS. PREFIXES. 

? Suffixes usually modify the part of speech, without materially 

affecting the sense in other respects. 

Ex.— De (from, separation), destroy, destroy-er, destmot-ive, dte-struct- 
ive-ly, de-stmct4ve-ness, destr net-ion, in-destmet-ive, in-destmet-ible, in-de-stmctr 
ibil-ity. 

? 47. There are different prefixes capable of expressing the same 

sense, and there are also different suffixes capable of expressing the 

same sense ; because the choice is to be determined not merely by 

the meaning of the appendage, but also by euphony, analogy, and 

the character of the root. 

Ex. — Generous, un-generons; accurate, m-accurate; throne, de-throne, un- 
throne ; confess, eonfess-ion ; acknowledge, aoknowledg-ment. 

? 48. The meaning of a prefix is sometimes very obvious, some- 
times obscure, and sometimes it has faded altogether. 

Ex. — t^-hold, trans-nlant, in-eorreet ; trans-net, per-feet, understand. ; com- 
plete, fo-stir. 

? 49. In making a combined form, some of the parts frequently 

undergo a change for the sake of euphony or analogy. This consists 

in the change, omission, or insertion of some letter or letters. The 

initial consonant of the root often requires the final letter of the 

prefix to be like it. 

Ex. — Con-lect, col-lecb ; dis-fer, dif-fer ; in-moderate, im-moderate ; con-operate, 
co-operate; dis-vulge, di-vulge ; a-archy, an-archy ; mucilage-ous, mucilag-inous. 

PREFIXES. 

The prefixes in Roman letters are Latin ; in Italic, Greek ; in black, Saxon or native. 

A ; on, in, at, to. In a few words it is merely intensive. 
Form, spell, and define : — 
Bed, ground, shore, cross, sleep, pace, slant, field, side, wake, rise. 
Thus: Abed ; a — b-e-d-bed — abed ; on or in bed. 

A, ab, abs ; from, separation. 

Vert (turn) ; solve (loosen), rupt (broken), sorb (suck) ; tract (draw), tain (hold). 

AD, A, AC, AF, AG, AL, AN, AP, AR, AS, AT; to, at 

Join, judge ; mount, scend (climb) ; cord, cuse (charge) ; fix, fusion (pouring) ; 
gress (step), gravate (heavy) ; lot, luvial (washing) ; nex (join), nihilato 
(nothing) ; portion, preciate (price) ; rogato (lay claim) ; sure, sail (leap) ; 
tract (draw), tribute (give). 
A, AN; without, privation. 

Theist (God), chromatic (color), pathy (feeling), torn (cut) ; archy (government), 
AMPHI; two, double. Theatre, bious (living). 

ANA ; up, throughout, parallel, back, again. 

Tomy (cutting), lysis (separation), logy (discourse), gram (letter), baptist. 
Ante ; fore, before. Chamber, date, meridian (noon), cedent (going). 
ANTI, ANT ; against, opposition. 

Bilious, febrile, pathy (feeling), dote (given); arctic, agonist (contend). 
APO, AP; from, off. 

Gee (earth), strophe (turning), logy ; helion (sun). 



DERIVATION OF WORDS. PREFIXES. 85 

Be ; action directed to an object; intensity ; by, near. 

Daub, dew, moan, lie, set, siege, cloud, spatter, take ; side, fore, cause. 
Bene ; good, well Fit (deed), volent (wishing), factor (doer), diction (saying). 
Bis, bi; twice, two. 

Cuit (baked ; angular, valve, gamy (marriage), sect (cut), ped (foot). 
GAT A, CAT; down, against, throughout. (The opposite of ana.) 

Ract (flowing), strophe, chresis (use) ; hedral (seat), holic (whole). 
Circum, CIRCU; round, about 

Navigate, jacent (lying), spect (looking), stance (standing) ; late (borne), 
itous (going). 
CiS ; on this side. Alpine, Atlantic. 

Con, CO, COG, col, com, cor; with, together, jointly. 

Join, tract, fuse (pour), vene (come), ceive (take), flict (strike) ; extent, heir, 
operate ; nate (born) ; league, lect (gather) ; press, mingle, pose (place) ; 
respond, relative. 
Contra, contro, counter ; against, in opposition, answering to. 

Diet (say), vene, distinguish ; vert ; part, pressure, feit (make), act, plead. 
De ; from, down, destruction. 

Tract, press, throne, scend, tect (cover), tach (tie), spise (look), moralize. 
DIA, BI; through, across. Meter, logue (speech), gonal (angle). 

Dis, di, dif; away, apart, undoing, negation. 

Join, organize, appear, ease, sect, tract, cover, perse (scatter), please, inter, 
order; verge (incline), stance, gress ; fer (bear), fuse (pour). 
E, ex, EC, ef ; out, out of, from. 

Ject (throw), lect (pick), vade (go), mit (send) ; pectorant (breast), press, pand 
(spread), tort (twist), pire (breathe) ; centric (centre), stasy (standing); fuse, 
feet (done), fulgence (shining). 
EN (Greek or French), EAT ; in, into, upon. 

Tangle, shrine, rage, gulf, large, grave (write), tomb ; broider, blazon, bark, 
bitter, brace (arm). 
EPl, EP; upon, after. Taph (tomb), demic (people), logue; ode. 

Extra ; beyond. Ordinary, vagant (going), mural (wall). 

For, fore ; from, against, the contrary. Bid, get, sake (seek), give, swear ; go. 
Fore, for ; before. 

Tell, run, see, know, taste, man, father, noon, arm ; ward. 
HYPER; beyond, over, excess. Borean (north), critical, meter (measure). 

HYPO ; under. Thesis (placing), sulphuric, crite (thoughts). 

In, ig, im, il, ir ; not, privation, the contrary. 

Human, discreet, elastic, consistent ; noble ; modest, mortal, patient ; legal, 
liberal ; reverent, regular, resolute. 
In, im, il, ir; in, into, upon. 

Flame, struct, lay, here (stick), fleet (bend), wrought; plant, pearl, print, 
press ; luminate or lustrata (throw light) ; radiate (throw rays). 
Inter; between. Weave, line, cede, regnum (reign), mix. marriage. 

Intro ; inwards, within. Duce (lead), mission (sending). 

META, METH ; over, beyond, with, change. 

Thesis, morphose (form), physics, phor (convey) ; od (way). 

Mis ; wrong, ill. Apply, call, deed, use, spell, take, fortune. 

Non ; negation. Conductor, conformity, sense, resident, payment. 



86 DERIVATION OF WORDS. PREFIXES. 

Ob, 00, OF, OP ; in the way, to, against 

Trude (thrust), ject (throw), tain ; cur, casiou (falling) ; fer ; pose, press. 

Out ; beyond, not within. Bid, grow, last, live, let, skirt, side, law, cast. 

Over; above, beyond, excess. 

Balance, hang, top, leap, spread, do, flow, look, wise, load, shoot, value. 
PARA, PAR ; beside, against, from. 

Dox (opinion), graph (writing), phrase, site (food) ; helion, ody (song). 
Per, pel ; through, by. 

Use, form, ennial (year), ceive, sist (stand), feet, chance, cent (hundred) ; lucid 
(shining). 
Peri ; around, about, near. 

Patetic (walking), helion, od, phery (bearing), cranium, style (pillar). 
Post ; after. Script (writing), humous (ground), pone (place), mortem (death), 

meridian. 
Pre ; before. 

Judge, mature, engage, dispose, sentiment, fer, sume (take), vent (come), side 
(sit), text (weaving). 
Preter ; past, beyond. Natural, imperfect, mission. 

Pro, prof ; for, forth, forwards, before. 

Noun, ceed (go), gress, tect, pel (drive), spect (look), logue ; fer. 
Pe; again, back. 

Build, call, enter, new, view, pel, sonant (sounding), strain (draw), bound. 
Retro ; backwards. Cede, vert, spect, grade (walk). 
Se ; aside, apart. Cede, elude (shut), cant (cutting), duce (lead), lect. 
Semi, demi, hemi; half 

Annual, circle, colon, diameter, vowel ; god, cannon ; sphere. 
Si>te ; without. Cure (care). 

Sub, sue, suf, sug, sup, sur, sus, — subter ; under, underneath, inferior. 

Soil, divide, marine; cor (run), cumb (lie down);- fer, fuse; gest (bring); 
plant, press ; rogate (ask) ; tain ; fuge (fly), fluent (flowing). 
Super, supra, sur ; above, over and above. 

Cargo, crescent (growing), fluous, natural ; mundane ; pass, charge. 
SYN, SYL, SYM; with, together. 

Thesis, tax (placing), opsis (view), agogue (lead); lable (taking), logism 
(counting) ; phony (sound), pathy (feeling). 
Trans, trax, tra ; through, across, over, on the other side of 

Act, plant, gress, Atlantic, pose, form, it (going); scribe (write), scend' 
dition (giving). 
Tri; three. Colored, angular, meter, foliate (leaf), ennial. 

Un; not, negation, privation, undoing. 

Able, aided, bar, chain, happy, truth, wise, ship, do, twist, horse. 

Under ; beneath, inferior. 

Agent, brush, current, ground, rate, sell, hand, go, mine, sign. 
Uni ; one. Corn (horn), form, florous (flowering), parous (producing), valve. 

Up ; motion upvmrds, above, subversion. 

Turn, raise, rise, hold, land, hill, right, start, set, root. 

With ; against, from, back. Hold, draw, stand. 



DERIVATION OF WORDS. SUFFIXES. 87 

SUFFIXES. 

? The derivatives of this class consist almost entirely of nouns^ 
adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. 

NOUNS. 

Person or Instrument : Ard, ary, ee, ess, ine, ist, ite, ive, ix, 
n, nt, r. 

Thing, Act, or State: Ade, age, al, dom, hood, ice, ics, ion, 
ism, ment, ness, nee, ncy, ry, ship, t, th, ude, ure, y. 

? A derived noun may denote either a person, a thing, an act, or a 
state ; or it may denote the abstract of any of these. The " person who" 
must be either a doer of an act, a recipient of an act, or simply one in some 
way related to or concerned with that from which the name is formed. 
From the thing, the mind naturally passes to whatever is obviously related 
to it ; and the meaning of the word is also extended accordingly. From 
the act, the mind and the meaning readily pass to what caused the act, — 
often a concrete object, or an abstract, or some faculty, skill, or principles, 
— or else to the result of the act, or to the manner. From the state, the 
passage is as easy to what causes it, to what follows from it, to what sus- 
tains it, or to what necessarily accompanies it. The same ending is not 
usually confined to one meaning, but ranges with the principles given un- 
der the head of Figures. See pp. 263. 

Form and spell, making the requisite euphonic changes ; and define : — 

Ard* — Drunk, dote, slug, dull, cow (verb), Spain, Savoy. 

Ary. — Adverse, statute, note, mission. 

Ee. (Generally passive ; the person to whom.)— Indorse, pay, patent, as- 
sign, consign, trust, commit, legate, mortgage, lease, less; absent, refuge. 

Ess, ine, ix; female. — Lion, heir; hero, Joseph; administrator. 

Ist. — Copy, tour, journal, natural, novel, algebra, drug, duel, art, violin, 
pian-o; drama, 4ist ; enthusiasm, -ast, encomium. 

Ite. — Favor, Israel, Moab, Jacob. 

Ive. — Capture, operate. 

IV. — America, Africa, Virginia, Kentucky, college, music. 

Nt. — Claim, -ant, account^ inhabit, combat, dispute, confide, protest, assist, 
assail, appeal ; study, -ent, preside ; oppose, -ponent ; act, -gent ; receive, -cipient. 

R. — Oversee ; lie, -ar, beg, school ; farm, -er, hunt, make, plaster, setUe, 
pipe, widow, hat, foreign ; visit, -or, edit, profess, survive, speculate ; conspire, 
•ator; compete, -itor ; auction, -eer, mountain, gazette, pamphlet, chariot; cash, 
-ier, cannon, finance, cloth, glaze ; save, -ior ; law, -yer, saw ; team, -ster, web ; 
poke, -er (thing), revolve, shut, boil, read, speak. 

Diminutives. (These often imply endearment or contempt) — Man, -ikin ; 
lamb, -kin ; ring, -let, stream, leaf, cover ; lock, -et, mall ; lord, -ling, hire, suckle. 
Globe, globule ; grain, granite; ball, bullet; cat, kitten; island, isle; isle, islet. 

Ade. — Gascon, stock, lemon, baluster; stamp, -ede. 

Age. — Use, marry, mile, post, equip, folium (leaf), bond, puph\ parson, 
hermit, anchor. 

Al. — Peruse, remove, recite, requite, deny, propose, refuse, dismiss. 

Do ill. — Free, wise, martyr, king, duke. 



88 DERIVATION OF WORDS. SUFFIXES. 

Hood. — Child, brother, man, woman, boy, sister, hardy, lively. 

Ice. — Serve, just, lath, lat-tice. 

Ics. — Poet, harmony, mechanic, statist (state), phys (nature). 

Ion. — Commune, precise, act, reflect, possess, expand; and many other 
words, in which the ending shows itself in the form of Hon or sion. 

I >an. — Fanatic, despot, critic, hero, baptize, heathen. 

Hie lit* — Move, pave, content, case, punish, acquire, agree, arm, battle, com- 
plete, refresh. 

Wee, licy. — Acquaint, -ance, concord, resist, observ-e, convey ; innocent, 
•ence, resident, differ, precede ; pliant, -ancy, constant ; despond, -ency, ascend. 

Ness. — Good, bad, white, bold, happy, busy, comprehensive. 

Ship* — Partner, scholar, town, workman, hard, friend, lord, court. See -hood. 

X, th. — Constrain, join, restrain ; warm, wide, long, strong. 

Ude. — Disquiet, serve, solitary, right, red-. 

Ure. — Please, depart, moist, architect, seize, legislate, slgn-ature, nourish, nur-. 

Y. — Honest, modest, discover, grocer, injure; lunatic, -acy, private, pirate; 
secret, -cy ; hypocrite, -sy ; pedant, -ry, gallant, revel, bigot, master ; ' brew, -ery, 
witch, mock, fish, crock, null, -ity, dense, pure, opportune, secure, elastic. 

Words ending in y or ry 1 are often collective in sense, denoting groups of 
objects or acts; as, Orange-n/, shrub- bery, soldier-?/, sorcer-i/, trigonometry. 
So is the ending ing not unfrequently collective in sense ; as, "Bed, bedding ; 
shop, shopping ; bagging, carpeting, hedging, gunning (elements of science or 
science as drawn from a multitude of acts or experiments). 

ADJECTIVES. 

Al, an, ar, ate, ble, en, ern, full, ic, (ific,) ile, ine, ish, ive, 
nt, ous, some, ward, y, (ly, ary, ory). 

? Derivative adjectives generally signify — 

Having of or having the nature of, more or less ; or that the object 
described, in some way belongs or is related to that from whose name tho 
adjective is formed. 

The same word may frequently be used either as an adjective or as a noun. 

Form and spell, making the requisite euphonic changes '; and define : — 

Al. — Nature, nation, origin, parent, ornament, music, autumn; senator, -ial t 
manor, matter, part, commerce ; spirit, -ual, sense, habit ; consequence, -tial, in- 
fluence, essence ; benefit, -cial ; nose, nas-, pope, pap-, feast, fest-. 

All. — Africa, America, Italy, suburbs. 

Ar. — Column, pole, consul ; globe, -ular, circle, muscle, title, particle. 

Ate. — Rose, globe, affection, consider, compassion. 

Ble. (Passive, if from a transitive verb.) — Detest, -able, cure, eat, change, 
honor, tolerate, utter, value, fashion ; corrupt, -ible, resist, sense, destroy, destruct-, 
accede, access-, perceive, percept-, divide, divis-. 

En. (Of what substance made.) — Beech, hemp, silk, gold, wood. 

Fill. — North, south, east, west. 

Fill. (Opposed to -less.) — Mind, peace, hope, brim, care, waste, cheer, 
youth, play, sin, wake, law, mourn, truth. 

Ie. — Angel, hero, poet, sphere, lyre; vertex, -ical, dropsy; sympathy, -etic f 
pathos, theory; barometer, ~etric, diameter; emblem, -otic, problem, system, 



DERIVATION OF WORDS. SUFFIXES. 89 

drama; color, -ific, dolor; science, -tific; romance, -tic; pharisee, -saic ; tragedy, 
-gic ; Plato, ~nic. 

He. — Infant, serve, merchant, mercant-, puer (boy). 

I tie. — Serpent, adamant, alkali ; crystal, -line. 

Ish. — Salt, black, yellow, boy, fop, wolf, snap, scare, skit-, Spain, Ireland. 

Ive. (Generally active.) — Create, abuse, progress, retain, retent-, attend; 
perceive, -ceptive ; presume, -sumptive ; produce, product-, disjoin, disjunct- ; 
adhere, -hesive, corrode, intrude, decide ; expel, -pulsive, repel. 

rVt. (Generally active.) — Tolerate, -ant, please, buoy, triumph, luxury; 
solve, -ent, consist, abhor ; compose, -ponent. 

Oils. — Bulb, pore, pomp, fame, joy, ruin, peril, murder, mountain; bile, 
-ious, perfidy, malice; pity, -eous, beauty, duty; tempest, -uous 1 contempt; 
enormity, -mous ; merit, -or ious ; mucilage, -inous. 

§onie. — Toil, tire, dark, glad, quarrel, weary. See -ish. 

Y. — Grass, hill, shade, swamp,, meal, flower, mud, cloud, wealth, grease, 
sleep, pearl, wire ; friend, -ly 1 beast, brother, heaven, man, time ; residue, -ary, 
imagine, element ; subsidy, -iary ; contradict, -ory, conciliate, declare, satisfy. 

TJpward, outward, bulbiferous, &vmigerous, globose, sphered, Arabesque, sta- 
tuesque, grotesque. 

YERBS. 

Ate, en, fy, ish, ize, ise. 

J Derivative verbs generally signify — 

To make or become ; to impart the thing or quality to, or to exercise 
it; to make the ordinary use of; an act or state consisting of some com- 
mon or permanent relation between the subject of the verb and the thing. 

Form and spell, making the requisite euphonic changes; and define: — 

Ate. — Alien, germ ; origin, populous, luxury, fabric, facility, spoil, spoli-, 
grain, granu-, stimulous, office, vacant, circular. 

Eai. — Black, white, sharp, red, soft, moist, less, sweet, bright, strength, haste, 
glad, sad, ripe, quick, thick, fright. 

Fy. — Beauty, pure, just, simple, glory, class, sign, clear, clari-, right, recti-, 
peace, paci-, special, sped-, example, exempli-, fruit, fructi- ; prophet, -esy. 

Isll. — Brand, bland, public, famine, languid. 

Ize, ise. (These generally signify to make, to apply, to act the part of.) — 
Legal, theory, modern, moral, organ, botany, tyrant, melody, familiar, character, 
apology ; critic. 

Sharp ending to flat or rough. — Cloth, breath, wreath, bath, price, ad- 
vice, grass, excuse, abuse, grief, half, thief. 

Accent changed. — Abstract, conflict, absent, frequent, rebel. 

Word unchanged. (To make that use of which mankind generally 
make ; some customary or habitual act or state ; some active relation to.) — Hoe, 
shoe, shovel, plane, chisel, hammer, smoke, garden, farm, weed, plant, coop, 
soap, shear, gem, fire, lance, and instrumental tbings generally. 



90 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

ADVERBS. 

Ly, ward or wards, wise or ways. 

Form, spell, and define: — 

Cy 5 like, manner, quality. — Bitter, strange, bright, plain, faint, fierce, swift, 
playful, studious, mere, scarce, in, one, on-, spiral, fearless, infallible. 

Ward, wards ; direction. — Back, in, out, up, down, home, heaven, 
east, lee, wind. 

Wise, ways ; manner, way. — Length, cross, other, side, edge ; straight. 

People sometimes commit errors in deriving words ; as, Maintainance, prevent- 
ative, proposial, for maintenance, preventive, proposal, from maintain, prevent, 
propose. 

Write down all the words you can think of as being derived from foem. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Nearly all that we shall say from this page to page 258, belongs to Etymology and Syntax. 

? There are nine Parts of Speech ; Nouns, Pronouns, Articles, 
Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter- 
jections, 

To this list, some grammarians would add the Participles, separating them 
from the Verbs ; and some would reject from it the Articles, classing them with 
the Adjectives. But participles seem to have no better claim to being ranked a 
separate part of speech than infinitives have ; and the two articles, considering 
that they can not be always construed like adjectives, that they are used at least 
as much as all the adjectives, that they are liable to as many errors, that they 
are recognized in other languages, and that they merely aid nouns somewhat 
in the direction of their distinction into proper and common, are worthy of being 
made a separate class. Language, as we shall see, is a most ingenious instrument ; 
wonderfully adapted to the myriad-minded human race, and enabling them to lay 
hold of the world and manage it intellectually in every conceivable way. The 
above classification of words, however, exhausts it, and all its capabilities. The 
substantives and the verbs are the chief classes, and next to them are the adjectives 
and the adverbs. These four classes have, to some extent, what are called inflec- 
tions ; that is, they are sometimes changed in form to express a modification in the 
idea. Inflections abound most about the core or most ancient part of a language. 
In the course of time, they are often dropped, or detach themselves, their meaning 
being assumed by new and small words ; so that the language becomes collocative 
rather than inflected. Such is the case with our language. It is properly the office 
of Grammar to treat of the classes of words, and of their properties which produce 
inflections ; but,as the properties of words must also be regarded in the collocation 
of words, we usually treat of all those properties necessary to be regarded in the 
structure of sentences ? whether they cause an entire change, a slight change, o 
even no change at all m the form of the word. Inflections, especially ancient ones, 
consist sometimes of a vowel change in the word; as, mouse, mice; cling, clung, 
sometimes of a different ending ; as, fox, foxes ; ox, oxen; great, greater: sometimes 
of something prefixed ; as, beautiful, ?nore beautiful ; write, may write, did write. 

Words have sometimes been divided into substantives, attributives, and particles. 
Dr. Becker divides all words into notional words, &n.dform-wo? 7 ds. The former de- 
note our notions, conceptions, or rather somewhat independent ideas ; and virtually 
take up the gross of the world. They are the 'nouns, the principal verbs, and most 
of the adjectives and adverbs. The latter rather denote the ligatures, substitutes, 
and appendages, — the relations of our conceptions or notional ideas, — the various 
turns and windings of thought, — and give to language its adequate flexibility and 
force. They are articles, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, interjections, auxiliary 
verbs, and some adjectives and adverbs. Briefly, the former comprise conception- 
words, — thing-words, quality-words, and ac'ion-words ; and the latter, substitutes 
and auxiliary words in general. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. NOUNS. 91 

5. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 
Nouns. 

J 50. A noun is a name. 

Ex. — George, Martha, Columbus^ water, river, air, wind, farm, farmer,, angel, 
world, mind, judgment, thought, joy, fitness, labor, laborer, laboriousness, Mary 
Jane Porter. " The signs +, ■»-, X , and -•-." " The pronouns he and who.' 1 '' " Moll 
or any other she." " To study reading, writing, and cyphering." " To a£tac& the 
enemy being resolved upon." " I prefer grim to yellow." " The clause, ' £Aa£ ma» 
is &o/7fc to trouble. 1 " " With his ' i/ow do you do P and ' PFW am / efo for you P " 
" It would be improper, for us to do so." (What would be improper ?) .. " That 
all things good and beautiful must pass away, is a sorrowful reflection." (What 
is a sorrowful reflection ?) 

? Words from almost every other part of speech, also phrases 
and sentences, are sometimes used in the sense of nouns, and should 
then be parsed accordingly. 

? 51. When two or more words form but one name, or are habit- 
ually used so, they may all be parsed together as one noun. 

Ex. — Henry Hudson, Juan Fernandez, New Orleans, Jefferson City, Brigadier 
General Commandant, Messrs. Harper, Misses Lewis, Gen. George Washington ; 
and perhaps as well, Duke of Northumberland, Charles II, Alexander the Great. 
'''Lord Bacon, Sir Walter Raleigh, Dr. Samuel Clarice, and the Duke of Marl- 
iarough, were not brought up in public schools." — Sydney Smith. 



Classes. 

? Nouns are divided into two classes, — proper and common ; and 
a part of the common nouns may be divided into collective nouns, 
abstract nouns, and material nouns. 

Proper means one's own ; common, belonging to several or many ; collective, gathering into 
out ; abstract, drawn from something else ; and material, pertaining to substance or matter. 

1 52. A proper noun is an individual name. 

Ex. — Mary, Alexander Hamilton, California, Washington City, St. Petersburg, 
Missouri, Paradise Lost ; the Missouri ; the Iliad ; the Alleghanies ; the Azores. 
And according to some authorities, "The Romans; the Cherokees ; the Messrs. 
Harris." 

When we find plural capitalized names that distinguish groups in the same 
way as singular proper names distinguish individuals, it is perhaps best to parse 
them always as proper nouns. 

? Proper nouns do not admit of definition. When first applied to objects, 
they are generally given at pleasure ; and they serve to distinguish one indi- 
vidual of a kind, from others of the same kind. Most of the names on maps, 
and the names of persons, are proper nouns. The number of proper nouns is 
almost unlimited: that of places alone is said to exceed 70,000. 

Most proper nouns had originally some meaning, which, however, was not de- 
signed to make the word applicable to all other similar objects, but to distinguish 
and exclude the object named, from all others. Examples : Jerusalem, habitation 
of peace ; Christ, anointed; Margaret, pearl ; Thatcher, Harper, Smith, occupa- 
tion; White, Long, Stout, quality ; Brooks, Woods, Hill, Dale, locality ; West- 
cott, Westcote, Northcutt, west cottage, north cottage ; Mississippi, all the rivers ; 
Minnesota, sky-tinted ; Shenandoah, daughter of the stars ; Winnipiseogee, smile 
of the Great Spirit. The meaning of most proper nouns is lost, or is not taken into 
consideration in applying them. 



92 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. NOUNS. 

? 53. When a common noun denotes an object in the sense 01 

a proper noun, it becomes a 'proper noun. 

Ex. — The Park ; tlie Commons ; the Blue Bidge ; Niagara Falls ; Mammoth 
Cave. u And Hope enchanting smiled." These words are viewed as merely de- 
noting particular objects rather than as characterizing them by the ordinary mean- 
ings of the words. 

? 54. A coaaimoai noun is a generic name. 

Ex. — Man, boy, engineer, hunter, woman, horse, foxes, hill, oak, white-oak, 
apple, steamboat, anger, happiness, reason, sun, moon, earth, winter. 

Common nouns have meaning, and admit of definition. They distinguish dif- 
ferent lands or sorts from one another, by reference to their nature. A common 
noun is applied to more objects than one on account of something in which they 
resemble, and from which the same name is given to them all. Those nouns in 
a dictionary which are defined, are common nouns. Of these, our language is 
said to have about 30,000. 

? 55. When a proper noun assumes a meaning, or implies other 

objects having the same name, rather than similar objects having 

different names, it becomes a common noun. 

Ex. — " He is neither a Solomon nor a Samson." " Bolivar was the Washington 
of South America." " No Alexander or Ccesar ever did so." " Some mute, inglori- 
ous Milton here may rest." "Alps on Alps [great difficulties] arise." " Massa 
chusetts has produced her Demosthenes." u 1 saw the Russians, and also a Tun 
and several Persians, at the As tor House." 

It is sometimes very difficult to determine whether a given noun is proper or 
common. The same word is sometimes a proper, and sometimes a commoi, 
noun. 

Ex. — Pr oper: " Sunday precedes Monday.' 1 '' " B follows A** " / is a pro- 
noun." " The planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth" &c. Common: "We have 
preaching on every Sunday." "The b is followed by an a." " An / or a you-" 
" The sun shines upon the earth" When a word is used to name itself, univer- 
sally considered, Mr. G-oold Brown calls it a common noun, similar to such words 
as water and virtue denoting the objects universally ; but when a letter is used to 
name itself, he calls it a proper noun. The distinction is very nice, — perhaps too 
much so. 

A proper noun can not, as such, be extended in its application to any other 
similar objects : it is designative and exclusive. Bat a common noun is descriptive 
and inclusive ; that is, when we have once named an object by it, we are ready to 
give the same name to any other similar object as soon as it appeal's to us ; as, 
"Jupiter has four moons" According to Mr. Mills, the former denotes ; the lat- 
ter, " connotes." The ordinary household names that denote the objects which 
permanently and necessarily make the world, are considered common nouns, even 
when the word can denote but one object, or the thing universally ; as, The sun, 
the earth, the moon, the stars, the angels ; time, space, spring, winter, grass, vir- 
tue, beauty, man. Such plurals as Alps, Alleghanies, Andes, Orkneys, denoting 
contiguous parts rather than similar individuals, are undoubtedly proper nouns, 
analogous to the common nouns ashes, scissors, assets, minutiee. Such terms as 
" the Comanches, the Mohawks, the Gauls, the Belgians, the Spaniards, the Mexi- 
cans, the Jews, the Israelites, the Janizaries, the Mamelukes, the two Adamses, the 
Marshall jf Virginia, the Muses, the Sirens, the Sibyls, the Graces, the Naiads, are 
considered proper nouns by some grammarians ; and common nouns by others, 
who argue that whenever a proper noun is so used as to imply more objects than 
one having the same name, it becomes common. 

1 56. A collective noun is a noun denoting, in the singular 
form, more than one object of the same kind. 

Ex. — Assembly, swarm, flock, crowd, pair, family ; " a hundrod head" 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. NOUNS. 93 

! 57. But a noun in the singular number, that denotes a collection of 
things resembling in their general character, but differing in their particu- 
lar character, is not a collective noun. 

Ex. — Furniture, jewelry, machinery, finery, baggage, clothing. 

! An abstract noun denotes a quality, an action, or a mode 

of being. 

Abstract signifies drawn from, and these nouns are so termed because they are 
not the names of certain substantive objects or things in the world, but the names 
of certain notions which the mind has drawn from them, or conceived concerning 
them. Thus, as we advance from childhood, in our acquaintance with the world, 
we form some idea of what is meant by time, space, life, death, hope, virtue, wis- 
I dom, magnitude, disease, war, peace, government, goodness, youth, happiness, beauty, 
so?*row, murder, revenge, cold, heat, whiteness, softness, hardness, brightness, dark- 
ness, 'motion, rest, fight, silence, existence, height, depth, growth, custom, fashion, 
strife, honor, glory, industry, economy, indolence, grandeur, religion, knowledge, 
honesty, deception, drunkenness, poverty, destiny, ambition, power. These and such 
nouns are abstract. 

? 58. Most abstract nouns readily pass into concrete nouns. 

Ex. — " The sisteri were famous beauties." "Pride, Poverty, and Fashion, once 
undertook to keep hfouse together." Concrete, including the substance with its 
qualities. 

? 59. A material noun denotes some kind of matter or sub- 
stance. 

Ex. — Bread, meat, water, wood, stone, wheat, fiour, metal, gold, cabbage. 

? Abstract nouns and material nouns have a universal, indivisible ap- 
plication, and generally also special applications. Some writers consider 
them abstract or material, only when used in, the former sense. 

Ex. — 1. "Beauty is attractive;" "Bain moistens the ground;" "Vice, fire, 
whiteness." 2. " The beauty of the rose ;" " The whiteness of snow ;" " The rain 
that fell last night ;" " A vice, a fire, vices, fires." 

? 60. To the classes of nouns already given, some grammarians add 
verbal nouns, — participles and infinitives used in the sense of nouns, the 
former of which are sometimes called gerundives ,or participial nouns ; 
correlative nouns, — such as father and son, husband and wife, master and 
servant ; and diminutive nouns, — or such as gosling from goose, hillock from 
hill, lambkin from lamb, floweret from flower. 



The foregoing classification is in accordance -with the teachings of grammarians gen- 
erally. The two following classifications are perhaps more philosophical. 

1. Nouns are either concrete or abstract. 

Concrete nouns denote self-existent objects, or objects having attributes ; as, 
God, earth, rose. 

Abstract nouns denote attributes; as, Goodness, power, wisdom, color, fra- 
grance, motion, existence. 

2. Nouns maybe divided into the following classes: proper, abstract, male- 
rial, verbal, all of which imply unity or oneness, and common including collective, 
both of which imply plurality. 

A proper noun is such a name of an object or a group, as is not applicable to 
every other similar object or group. 

An abstract noun denotes an attribute universally considered ; as, Truth, 
duration. 

A material noun denotes a kind of substance universally considered; as, 
Water, corn. 



94 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. — PRONOUNS. 

A verbal noun is a participle or an infinitive used as a noun. The abstract 
nouns include the verbal nouns. 

A common noun is such a name given to one or more objects, as is applicable 
to any others like them. 

Collective nouns denote groups of similar objects, as other nouns denote 
single objects. The common nouns include the collective nouns. 

The common nouns come near to the other classes in such expressions as, " The lion is 
courageous; 11 " The oak is an emblem of strength. 11 

Abstract or material nouns denoting objects personified, and common nouns 
deprived of "connotation" generally become proper. 

Proper, abstract, material, or verbal nouns, when modified, become common. 
The modification at once suggests plurality of objects. The modification may be 
effected by pluralizing the noun, or by using an article, adjective, adverb, ad- 
junct, or other modifying expression. 

Ex. — " There were Macphersons and Macdonalds." " The hauling of the stones and 
other materials, was a heavy expense, 11 " The honors of the society. 11 " To think always 
correctly, is a great accomplishment. 11 " The Hudson, the Pyrenees, 11 &c.=The river Hud- 
son, or the Hudson river, &c. ; or they may be deemed exceptions. 



Pronouns. 

? 61. A pronoun is a word that supplies the place of a noun. 

Ex. — u The father and Ms son cultivated the farm which they had purchased." 

There are three great classes of names in all ; pronouns, 'common nouns, and proper 
nouns. The pronouns are the fewest in number, only about sixty-six, and the most com- 
prehensive in application ; the common nouns are the next greater in number and less com- 
prehensive in application ; and the proper nouns are the most numerous and least compre- 
hensive. It seems not improbable that pronouns were the first names, being the simplest 
words for denoting, under all circumstances, whatever was about the persons conversing ; 
and that they were afterwards adopted almost wholly as substitutes for nouns. Their nature 
and very irregular declension indicate great antiquity, and sometimes pronouns — especially 
the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, the neuter pronoun it, and the relative 
pronoun what — are even yet so used as to refer, not so much to the names of objects, as to 
the objects themselves. 

? To avoid tiresome and disagreeable repetition of nouns, pro- 
nouns are used to represent persons or things already mentioned, 
inquired after, or easily recognized by them. 

Ex. — Alexander told Elizabeth that Elizabeth might write Elizabeth's namo 
in Elizabeth's book with Alexander's pen= u Alexander told Elizabeth that sh* 
might write her name in her book with his pen." " Who was U?" " ife is a fine 
scholar." 

? 62. The antecedent of a pronoun is the substantive in 
reference to which the pronoun is used. It usually precedes the 
pronoun, but sometimes follows it. 

Ex. — "John obeys his instructor." Here John is the antecedent of his. 
" Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath V — Gray. 

? 63. The antecedent may be a different pronoun, a phrase, or a 

clause, as well as a noun. 

Ex. — " He who is well, undervalues health." " Who that is strictly honest, 
wou\d flatter ?" " I wished to return, but it was impossible." " It is the novelty 
and delicacy of the design, That makes the picture so beautiful." " It is danger- 
ous to wake a sleeping lion." " He sold his farm, and -now he regrets it." 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS. 95 

! It is worthy of notice, that when a pronoun has a modified 

antecedent, it represents it with ail its modifications. " 

Ex. — " Tiie largest tree of the grove spread its* shade over us*." Here its repre- 
sents not tree merely, but The largest tnee of the grove. 

When a pronoun is used, we may nearly always put some noun in its place. It is not, 
however, customary to regard this word as its antecedent, bat the corresponding word else- 
where used, which it represents. To a pronoun having an antecedent, Rule 9th, of page 
46th, should be applied in parsing. When a pronoun is applied directly to the object itself ; 
when the speaker can not be thought to have the supposed antecedent in his mind ; and when 
the supposed antecedent does wot first present, in the order of the sense, the object meant,— 

j I doubt the necessity or even the propriety of applying Rule 9th. Hence the Rule may gen- 
erally be dispensed with, in parsing interrogatives, pronominals, responsive s, and frequently, 

: personal pronouns and relative pronouns. Even* in such sentences as, M Who knows himself 
a braggart, let him fear this ;" " Whomsoever you can not manage, him you need not send ;" 
" Whatever you do, do it well, 11 — him and it are probably not antecedents: the relatives do 
not refer to them ; but more directly, or as directly as they, to the objects themselves. 



Classes. 

? Pronouns are divided into three chief classes ; personal, relative, 
and interrogative. 

? 64. The personal pronouns are those whose chief use is, to 
distinguish the different grammatical persons. 

? 65. They are /, thou or you, he, she, and it, with their declined 
forms, and their compounds. See p. 8. 

? 66. You, your, yours, yourself, are now preferred, in familiar or 
popular discourse, to the other forms. 

? 67. Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, and ye, may rather be regarded as 
antiquated forms. They generally have an antique, scriptural, or poetic 
air. They are much used in the Bible, and frequently in other sacred 
writings and in poetry. They are also habitually used by the Friends, or 
Quakers. They seem, too, at one time, to have occasionally carried with 
them something of a blunt or insulting air; of which use, traces are still 
visible in our literature. 

Ex. — " Ye are the Bait of the earth." — Bible. " Thou Almighty Ruler, hal- 
lowed be thy name." — Book of Prayers. " Ye angels and ministers of grace, de- 
fend us !" — Shah. " Thy words had such a melting flow." u Ye winds, ye. waves, 
ye elements!" — Byron. "All that Lord Cobham did, was at thy instigation, 
thou viper ! for I thou thee, thou traitor!" — Lord Coke : Trial of Essex. 
" I have no words, my voice is in my sword ; 
Thou bloodier villain than terms can let thee out !" — Shakespeare. 

? 68. He, she, and they, sometimes refer to any one or any ones of a 
certain class of persons. 

Ex. — " He who trifles away his life, will never be rich in honors." " She who 
knows merely how to dress, dance, and flirt, will never make a good wife." "They 
who deserve most blame, are apt to blame first." 

? 69. The pronoun it is sometimes used to denote what the speaker 
can not well designate in any other way, or what he deems sufficiently 
obvious when thus mentioned ; and often to introduce at once what is 
more definitely denoted by some following word or words. 

Ex. — "It rains." "It thunders." "It was moonlight on the Persian sea." 
" Who is it?" " Who is it that calls the dead ■?" " It ran into a hollow tree, but 



90 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS. 

I do not know what it was. 17 "Lo! there it comes!" — Shakespeare's Hamlet. 
" How goes it with you?" "It is not well with me to-day." " Come and trip it 
as you go." "/Hsue." "ifcisl." "It was you." "It was they." "It is idle 
ness that leads to vice." "It is now well known that the earth is round." u Ii 
is mean to take advantage of another's distress." The following remark tells the 
truth in many instances : "It denotes the state or condition of things." 

? 70. The compound personal pronouns are used to denote persons 
or tilings as emphatically distinguished from others. 

Ex. — "I will ffOMVM^." you may stay." "I spoke with the man himself. r 
" I once felt a little inclined to marry her myself.' 1 '' 
" Hereditary bondsmen 1 know ye not, 
Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow?" — Campbell. 

? 71. These pronouns are farther used, when that which is denoted by 
the subject of the verb, is also that on which the act or state terminates. 
Ex. — " They drew themselves up by ropes." " She saw herself in the glass.' 

II He killed himself." " Said 1 to myself, ' I am myself again. 7 " 



? 72. A relative pronoun makes its clause dependent on an- 
other clause, or on a preceding word. 

Ex. — "There is the man | idiom you saw." " Nobody knows | who invented 
the letters." " I have what you need." " I can not tell what ails him." u Spirit 
that breathest through my lattice, thou," &Q. — Bryant. Here, "whom you saw," 
for instance, can not stand by itself, and make sense. 

? 73. The relative pronoun stands at or near the head of its 
clause, and the clause itself generally performs the office of an ad- 
jective or of a substantive. 

Ex. — " The boy who studies, will learn" ==The studious boy will learn. " I know 
who he is." (Know what ?) " I will do what I promised to do"=I will do the thing 
which I promised to do. 

? The relative pronouns are who, which, what, that, and as, with 
their declined forms and their compounds. See p. 8. 

? 7 -A. Who is applied to persons, and to other objects when regarded 
as persons. • ' 

Ex. — " The man who feels truly noble, will become so." " And Avarice, who 
sold himself to hell." — Spenser. " Now a faint tick was heard below, from the 
Pendulum, who thus spoke." — Jane Taylor. 

" ' Dear Madam, I pray,' quoth a Magpie one day, 

To a Monkey, who happened to come in her way." — Sarge?ifs Speaker. 

1 75. Which is applied to things, or to what we regard so, to brute ani- 
mals, to groups of persons denoted by collective nouns when all the indi- 
viduals of the collection are viewed together as one thing; and frequently 
to children. 

Ex. — " The rose which ;" " The bird which ;" " The elephant which;" " The 
world which ;" " The army which." " He was the soul which animated the party." 
" The nations which encompass the Mediterranean." "Congress, which is a body 
of wise men." " The child which we met." 

? 76. Wliich is used in connection with some word denoting the object 
referred to, or when the object is present, or has been already mentioned 
or brought to mind. 

Ex. — " The misfortunes which crushed him." " I can not tell which is which. 11 
11 I do not know which you mean." 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS. 97 

• 77. WJiat is applied to things and sometimes to other objects when 
regarded as things. 

Ex. — " I will take what you send." l i There is in my carriage what has life, 
soul, and beauty." 

? 78. What is used when the objects spoken of may be repres 
by the indefinite term thing or things and which. It represents them both, 
and does not have, in modern usage, the word thing or things understood 
before it. See Language, p. 59. 

? 79. Tliat is used in preference to who or vjhich when both persons 
and other objects are referred to; nearly always when the relative clause 
is restrictive — especially after the superlative degree, after viho, some, vertfc 
no, all, any, each, every, and frequently after the personal pronouns, or 
after predicate-nominatives referring to it] and generally where who or 
which would seem less proper, or would not sound so well. 

Ex. — " The ship and PAflgsirGXRS that were lost at sea." "In words that breathe, 
and thought.-! that burn." "This is the hardest lesson that we have yet had." 
t; Who thai respects himself, would tell a lie P " The same star that we saw last 
Bight*" "No man thit knows him, would credit him." " And all that wealth 
or beauty ever gave." u It is selfishness and vanity, that makes a woman a ooq 

? 80. The relative pronoun or relative clam strictive, when 

it makes the word to which it refers denote only such objects as are 
described by the relative clause : in the restrictive sense, it modifies 
an idea; in the other, it adds an idea. 

Ex. — "Riches that are ill gotten, are seldom enjoyed." Of course not all 
riches. "Head thy doom in the flowers, which fhde and die." Not restri 
u He was a man whom nothing could turn aside from the path which duty pointed 
out." Restrictive. "God must be conscious of every motk q the 

material univebsb, wltkh he th ally perva first relative 

etrictive; the other is not. u They enacted ench laws as were needed." " Catch 
what comes." 

It is often difficult to determine whether that should be preferred to who or 
which. Sometimes either may be used with equal propriety. When the ante- 
cedent is so fixed or definite by itself, or so limited by otner definite wor 
as the, that, those, — that the relative clause can not vary i* s me 
may be allowable or even preferable ; when the antecedent is an indefinite term, 
oris made indefinite by such modifying wo. 

may be preferable, or even necessary to make the meaning sufficiently definite, or 
to show precisely what objects are meant. 

" He is engaged in speculations which are very profitable," might suggest that a!! 
lations are very profitable : say, "in speculations that." *' He is a man who el 
body," may be understood to mean, that rascality is the essential quality of a i. 
gentleman : say, " a man tlisiV " It is the thought or sentiment which lies under the 
figured expression, that gives it its merit." Here no change could be made without in 1 
the sentence: which and t/iat, as here used, (though both restrictive,; v/ell show th 
ordinate character of the middle clause, and the restrictive character of the I 4i I 

don't doubt you'll like my friend, whom I have sent with a most trusty and faithful 
ant, who deserves your friendship and favor." This sentence is not so cie • 
had the author said, '-and who deserves," the reference would have / to 

"friend;" had he said, "that deserves," to "servant." 

? 81. Th at is often used as an adjective or as a conjunction ; so th- 
must regard it a pronoun, only when who or v:hich can be put for it without 
destroying the S€ 

Ex. — "That 10 man said that 15 he knows your father." " The ablest man that 
[who] spoke on the subject." " The same horse that [which] I rode." 



98 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS. 

? 82. As is generally a relative pronoun, when it is used after such, 
many, or same. 

Ex. — '"He pursued such a course as ruined him." "He deceived as many as 
trusted him." " The daughter has the same inclinations as the mother." 

As, at bottom, is perhaps a conjunction ; but since a relative must then be always sup- 
plied to complete the sense of ihe following clause, it may as well be parsed as a relative, 
borne grammarians maintain that it is never a relative ; others, that it is always a relative 
after such, many, or same. The truth lies perhaps between the two extremes. As is used 
in two different senses. It may recall the identical objects mentioned before, or it may pre- 
sent only similar objects. When, by supplying the necessary words, the meaning would be 
changed, as should certainly be parsed as a relative. " I bought, at the auction, such mules 
as were sold — as many mules as were sold" = I bought the mules that were sold — all the 
mules that were sold ; but, "I bought, at the auction, such mules as the mules were that 
were sold — as many mules as the mules were that were sold," suggests rather that there 
were two distinct parcels of mules, or that I bought other mules than those which were sold 
at the auction. Observe also, that, above, some other relative can be substituted for as, es- 
pecially by changing the preceding such or as many into the, those, or all. So, " He took as 
many as he could get" = He took all that he could get. "He took such apples as pleased 
him." "She played such tunes as were called for. 1 ' u He was the father of all such as 
play on the harp and organ." " As many as came, were baptized." "I will come at such an 
hour as I can spare." But when I say, "I bought such mules as you have for sale ;" " We 
do not want such men as he is ;" as should perhaps be considered a conjunction. In the last 
example, if parsed as a relative, it can not agree, as a predicate-nominative, with he : we can 
not say, " He is such men." Locke, however, has the following sentence: " There be some 
men whom you would rather have your son to be, with five hundred pounds a year, than 
some other with five thousand pounds." Whom is here used very much like as in the previ- 
ous example. — This latter sense of as is also analogous to that of than in such sentences as, 
" I have more money than you have ;" " He wanted more than he got." In these sentences, 
than should never be parsed as a relative, for it never expresses, when so used, the identity 
sometimes denoted by as. Most teachers, to avoid difficult distinctions, deem it best to parse 
as, construed after such, many, or same, always as a relative pronoun. 

? 83. The compound relative pronouns are preferred to the simple 
ones, when the speaker means to indicate more forcibly that he refers to 
an object considered as general or undetermined. Sometimes they are 
almost equivalent to the simple pronouns. 

Ex. — " Whoever [any person that] despises the lowly, knows not the fickleness 
of fortune"= Who despises the lowly, etc. " Take whichever [any one that] you 
like." " I'll do whatever [any or every thing that] is right." " Who steals my 
purse, steals trash." 

These pronouns are parsed like the corresponding simple pronouns ; hut, as 
they never refer to a definite or particular object, they have rarely or never an 
expressed antecedent. The indefinite ever or soever partly represents the ante- 
cedent, by being a sort of substitute for the indefinite adjective which must pre- 
cede the antecedent ; hence when the antecedent is expressed or supplied, the 
ever or soever must generally be dropped; as, " Whoever cares not for others, should 
not expect their favor" =Any person who care? not for others, should not expect 
their favor. Ever, from denoting time indefinitely, was naturally extended to 
place and time, and thence of course to objects. 



? 84. An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question.. 
Ex.—" Who came with you ?" " What do you want ?" " Which is yours ?" 

? The interrogative pronouns are who, which, what, and their 
declined forms. 

? Each of them may be applied to any person or thing what- 
soever ; except who, which is applicable to persons only. 

? 85. Who inquires for the name or some other appellation; and 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS. 99 

when the name is in the question, it inquires for the character or some 
description of the person. 

Ex. — " Who wrote the book ?" " Whose glory did he emulate?" " Whom do 
you take me to be?" " Who was Blennerhasset*?" 

? 86. Which supposes the name known, or disregards it, but seeks 
further to distinguish a certain individual from others. 

Ex. — " Which of you will go with me t\ " Which is the Governor ?" " Which 
is the tigress? Which must I take? Which is your daughter?" " Which is 
which ?" 

? 87. What goes still further, and inquires into the character or occu- 
pation. 

Ex.— " What is that fellow?" 

Briefly, who seeks to designate ; which, to distinguish ; and what, 
to describe. 

Ex. — " Who is that gentleman? — Mr. Everett. — Which one ? — Edward Everett. — 
What is he ? — An eminent scholar and statesman." 

Sometimes either who or what may be used in speaking of persons : but in most 
such instances, who is perhaps a little more respectful. 

88. When who, which, or what, occurs in a clause that is in answer or 
apparently in answer to the same clause used interrogatively, it is neither an ' 
interrogative pronoun, nor a relative pronoun in the sense of other relative pro- 
nouns ; but, according to some grammarians, it is a responsive or an indefinite 
pronoun. It may, however, be considered a relative pronoun : for it makes its 
clause dependent as the common relatives do. 

Ex. — Interrogative: " Who broke the window ?" Responsive rela- 
tive: " I do not know who broke it." — " Do you know who broke it ?" 

The following sentences illustrate the different uses of who, which, and what :— 
Interrogative. Responsive Relative. Common Relative. 

FAocame? ^£"7,^° c'aTe" \ I do uot know the man «,Ao came. 

Which is the lesson ? I remember which is the lesson. I remember the lesson which I recited. 
What did he buy? I knew what he bought. I admire what he bought. 

Wkat is truth , StTeal meiraruth is. f T -<* ™ »** is *** 

Hence, when these words are interrogative pronouns, they must stand at or 
near the beginning of the question ; when responsive relative pronouns, the verb or 
preposition (usually preceding) governs the entire clause, or depends on it ; and 
when common relative pronouns, it relates only to what is denoted by them. 



? 89. The chief other words used occasionally as pronouns, are 

one, oneself, none, other, another, each other, one another, and that, 

with their declined forms. 

Ex. — " Some one has said, 'A blush is the color of virtue.' " " The best ones." 
u Several others." "One should not think too highly of oneself '." " The old bird 
feeds her young ones.'''' " The brother and sister love each other." " The girls 
love one another.'''' " Wives and husbands are, indeed, incessantly complaining of 
each other.'''' — Johnson. "Put the dozen cups within one another." " JVbne^ [no 
persons] are completely happy." " The age of modest, industrious, and meritori- 
ous yeomanry is gone; and that [the age] of pining, office-seeking aristocracy ia 
at hand." 

Dr. Whately writes "oneself" in a form analogous to herself, himself, and better, I 
think, than "one's self." 



100 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. PRONOUNS. 

? 90. One often refers to mankind indefinitely, or to a class of object* 
already brought to mind, or obvious from the modifying word or words. 

• 91. Each other and one another are often called reciprocal pronouns, 
They have a reflexive sense, and represent the relation between any twc 
of the objects as being that between any and every other two of the en- 
tire series. 

Some grammarians, by supplying words, parse each of the foregoing terms as 
two words, the first one in apposition with the whole group, and the other as at 
objective ; as, " The two girls love each [one 7 loves the] other 11 [one 4 ]. But " The 
bad boys threw stones at one another" may mean, each one at the others, as well as, 
each one at the other one. The Greek language expresses one another by one word, 
and the German also by one inseparable, word that is precisely analogous to our 
phrase. 

" Wie zwei Elammen sich ergreifen, wie 

Harfentone in einander spielen." — Schiller. 
Here einander could not be parsed separately ; for ein in ander would be a solecism. 

There are several other words, of the pronominal or definitive adjectives, which 
are also frequently parsed as pronouns, especially when they refer distributively or 
emphatically to what has been already introduced. "They fled; some to the 
woods, and some to the r'ver." " They had two horses each." " Peace, order, 
and justice, were all destroyed." " I like neither." It will be best to consider 
such words pronouns, when they can not be so well disposed of in any other way : 
but they are frequently parsed as pronouns or adverbs when they might as well 
or better be parsed as adjectives. 

The last group of pronouns which we have considered, do not fall within any 
one of our three great classes of pronouns. If deemed necessary, they may be 
called reciprocal, indefinite, distributive, or demonstrative pronouns, according to 
their sense. 



? 92. In the place of a pronoun, we may frequently put a noun 

with the same pronoun, or with a word of the same class or nature, 

placed as an adjective before the noun. 

Ex. — " Who is he?"= What person is he ? " Show me what it is"=Show me 
what thing it is. " Which of the horses will you take ?"= Which horse will you 
take? "I will ride one horse to drive the others ;" i. e., the other horses. "The 
pleasures of vice are momentary ; those of virtue, everlasting"=The pleasures of 
vice are momentary; the pleasures of virtue, everlasting. 

? 93. The pronoun is sometimes omitted. 

Ex. — "'Tis Heaven [that] has brought me to the state [ivhich] you see." 
" There is the man [whom] I saw." [Thou] " Thyself shalt see the act." 

? 94. An antecedent may be supplied, when it is needed for the 

sake of other words, or even when it can be easily supplied, and 

without producing harshness. 

Ex. — " Give it to whoever [any one that] needs it ;" or, "Give it to [any person] 
who (ever) needs it." "Let such [persons] as hear, take heed." [He] "Who lives 
to fancy, never can be rich." 



Properties. 

? Nouns and Pronouns have genders, persons num< 
bers, and cases. 

? 95. Pronouns agree with their antecedents, in gender, person, 
and number. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. GENDERS. 101 

Genders. 

? The gender of a word is its meaning in regard to sex. 

? There are four genders ; the masculine, the feminine, the com- 
mon, and the neuter. 

Genders meant originally kind* or sorts ; thence, hinds in reference to sex ; and thence,the sense 
and form of words as adapted to distinguish objects in regard to sex. 

? 96. The masculine gender denotes males. 

Ex. — Uncle, father, son, governor, Mr. Kobertson, executor, dog, he, himself. 

? 97. The feminine gender denotes females. 

Ex. — Aunt, mother, daughter, girl, hen, gbose, heroine, seamstress, she, herself. 

? 98. The common gender denotes either males or females, 
or both. 

Ex. — Persons, parents, children, cat, insects, I, you, they, who. 

? 99. The neuter gender denotes neither males nor females. 

Ex. — Tree, house, city, heaven, beauty, body, size, manhood, soul, it, what. 
The neuter gender pertains chiefly to things, and to qualities or other attributes. 

Common gender of course does not imply common sex, but is the character- 
istic of those substantives which denote living beings, without showing in them- 
selves whether males or females are meant, being equally applicable to both. 
The sex may, however, be sometimes ascertained from some other word in the 
sentence ; and then the words should be parsed accordingly. 

Ex. — " The child and his mother were in good health." Here child is mascu- 
line, as shown by his. 

Some grammarians reject the "common gender," and would parse such words as parents and 
friends, as "'of the masculine and feminine gender," "of the masculine or feminine gender," 
" of the masculine gender," or "of the feminine gender," according to the sense. I see no valid 
objection to the term common gender, provided gender and sex be not, as they frequently are, con- 
founded. They are distinct in meaning : gender is a property belonging to words only ; ana sex, 
to objects. 

? 100. Nouns strictly applicable to males only, or to females only, 
are sometimes used to denote both. This usually occurs when the 
speaker aims at brevity of speech, and when the sex is not impor- 
tant to his design. The masculine term is generally preferred. 

Ex. — "Horses are fond of green pastures;" i. e., horses, and mares too. "The 
Jews are scattered over the whole world." "Heirs are often disappointed." "I 
saw geese and ducks in the pond." " The poets of England." But in connection 
with a proper name, only the appropriate term will harmonize in sense ; as, " The 
poet Homer;" " The poetess Sappho." 

? 101. Sometimes animals are regarded as male or female, not 
from their sex, but from their general character — from having mas- 
culine or feminine qualities. 

Ex.— "The lion meets his foe boldly.'j " The fox made his escape." "The 
spider weaves her web." " The dove smooths her feathers." a The timid hare 
leaps from her covert." " Every bee minds her own business." — Addison. "The 
ant is a very cleanly insect, and throws out of her nest all the remains of the corn 
on which she feeds." — Id. Had these bees and ants appeared to Addison as un- 
interesting, ordinary things, he would probably have used "it" and "its;" but 
their attractive, amiable, and almost rational qualities made the adoption of the 
femine gender peculiarly elegant. 



102 



tfOUNS AND PRONOUNS. GENDERS. 



? 102. So, inanimate objects are sometimes regarded by the 
imagination as living beings, and have then a suitable sex ascribed 
to them. The objects, in such cases, are said to be personified, that 
is, endowed with personal qualities ; and the nouns denoting suck 
objects, may be parsed as masculine or feminine by personification. 

Ex. — " The sun rose, and filled the earth with his glory." " The moon took her 
station still higher, and looked brighter than before." " The ooat has lost her 
rudder." " There lay the city before us, in all Tier beauty." " Behold the Mor% 
in amber clouds arise; see, with Tier rosy hands she paints the skies." — Zee, 
11 Then Anger rushed — his eyes on fire." — Collins. See his Ode on the Passions. 

? 103. A collective noun, when used in the plural form, or when 

it represents the collection as an aggregate or a whole, is of the 

neuter gender; when used otherwise, its gender corresponds with the 

sex of the individuals composing the collection. 

Ex. — " Six families settled on this river." " Every generation has its peculiar 
ities." " The audience were much pleased." 

104 Some words may vary much in gender, according to the very differ- 
ent meanings which they have. 

Ex. — " A game at ball ;" " I saw no game in my hunt." " A brilliant genius ;" 
" He has genius." " The same man thai — woman that — person that — apple that." 



? The English language has three methods of distinguishing 
the two sexes. 

a. By different words. 

Gander, 

Gentleman, 

Hart, 

Horse, 

Husband, 

King, 

Lad, 

Lord, 

Male, 

Man, 

Master, 

Master, 

Mr., • 

Milter, 

Monk, 

Monsieur, 

Monsieur, 

? 106. b. By difference of termination. 

Most words of this class are appellations of office, occupation, or 

rank, and the feminine generally ends in ess or trix. 

Ex. — Abbott, abbess. Add ess : Baron, heir, host, priest, count, poet, peer, 
prophet, tutor*, mayor, prior, shepherd, sultan*, deacon, giant, dauphin, prince, 
(see Rules for Spelling,) ogre, patron, god, (see Rules for Spelling, ) cit, Jew, her* 
mit, archer, viscount, author, canon, diviner, doctor*, tailor, Hebrew, Jesuit, 
regent, soldier, warrior. Change ter or tor into tress, and der into dress : 
Actor, doctor, arbiter, benefactor, auditor, enchanter, elector, instructor, chanter, 
songster, conductor, embassador, hunter, mister, protector, traitor, commander, 
demander, detractor, victor, suitor, director*, proprietor, teamster, idolater, edi- 

* Words marked with a star, have also some other form to denote the female. 



? 105. 






maid, ) 
spinster, f 


Bachelor, 


Beau, 


belle. 


Boy, 


girl. 


Boar, 


sow. 


Bridegroom, 


bride. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Bull, 


cow. 


Bullock, 


heifer. 


Cock, I 
Rooster, J 


hen. 


Colt, 


filly. 


Dog, 


bitch. 


Drake, 


duck. 


Earl, 


countess. 


Father, 


mother. 


Friar, 


nun. 



goose. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


lady. 


Papa, 
Rake, 


mamma. 


roe. 


jilt. 


mare. 


Ram, 


ewe. 


wife. 


Sire, 


madame. 


queen. 


Sire (ahorse) 


, dam. 


lass. 


Sir, 


madam. 


lady. 


Sloven, 


slut. 


female. 


Son, 


daughter, 
hind. 


woman. 


Stag, 


mistress. 


Steer, 


heifer. 


miss. 


Swain, 


nymph. 


Mrs. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


spawner. 


Wizard, 


witch. 


nun. 
mademoiselle. 


Youth, 


damsel, j 
maiden, j 


madame. 


Charles, 


Caroline. 



[ 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. GENDERS. 



103 



tor, progenitor, fornicator, porter, painter, orator*, mediator*, offender, solicitor, 
Tector, spectator*, creator, emulator, exactor, founder, tutor, huckster, sempster, 
inhabiter, minister, waiter, monitor, deserter*, inheritor*, inventor, competitor, 
executor*. Change tor into trix: Administrator, executor, adjutor, testator, 
prosecutor, inheritor, director, arbitrator. Change rer into ress: Adulterer, 
adventurer, caterer, cloisterer, hucksterer, murderer, sorcerer. 



WORDS NOT SO REGULAR. 



Emperor, 

Negro, 

Governor, 

Votary, 

Tiger, 

Eagle, 

Launderer, 

Duke, 

Tyrant, 

Pythonist, 

Anchorite, ) 

Anchoret, f 

Hero, 



empress, ) 

emperess. J 

negress. 

governess. 

votaress. 

tigress. 

eagless. 

laundress. 

duchess. 

tyranness. 

pythoness. 

anchoress. 

heroine. 



Carl, 

Landgrave, 

Margrave, 

Palsgrave, 

Joseph, 

Tragedian, 

Chamberlain, 

Goodman, 

Widower, 

Lover, [ 

Love, j 

Signore, 

Marquis, ) 

Marquess, ) . 



Don, 

Infant, 

Tzar, 

Sultan, 

Augustus, 

Cornelius, 



carline. 

langravine. 

margravine. 

palsgravine. 

Josephine. 

tragedienne. 

chambermaid. George, 

goody. Henry, 

Julius, 

Louis, 
John, 
Frank, 
Francis. 



love. 

signora. 
marchioness. 



,i 



donna. 

infanta. 

tzarina. 

sultana. 

Augusta. 

Cornelia. 

Georgia. 

Henrietta. 

Julia, ) 

Juliet. \ 

Louisa. 

Joanna. 

Frances. 



? 107. When, for either sex, the appropriate term is so seldom 
used as to be uncouth, the other term may be preferred ; and 
wherever there is a term for but one of the sexes, it may be used 
for the other, if necessary. 

? 108. Words derived or compounded from others, usually express 

gender in the same way. 

Ex. — "Coheir, coheiress; archduke, archduchess; grandsire, grandam ; land- 
lord, landlady ; schoolmaster, schoolmistress ; schoolboy, schoolgirl; merman, mer- 
maid ; grandfather, grandmother ; step-son, step-daughter ; peacock, peahen.'''' 



109. 



c. By using a distinguishing word. 



Ex. — iTe-bear, she-hear ; he-goat, she-goat ; buck-rabbit, ^-rabbit ; coc£-sparrow, 
7 ien-sparrow ; 77^^-servant, maid-servant ; male descendants, female descendants ; 
Mr. Barton, Mrs. Barton ; Mr. Eeynolds, Miss Reynolds. 

? 110. For some very common objects we have a common-gender 
term, as well as a masculine term and a feminine. 

Ex. — Parent, father, mother ; child, son, daughter ; person, man, woman. 

? 111. Some descriptive terms are so rarely needed to denote women, 
that they have no corresponding feminine terms. 

Ex. — Printer, carpenter, robber, baker, brewer, hostler, lawyer, fop, drummer, 
colonel. 

? 112. Others have rarely or never corresponding masculine terms. 

Ex.— Laundress, seamstress, brunette, coquet, jilt, dowdy, vixen, termagant, 

tag. 

Genders of Pronoujas. 

The speaker, and the person addressed, being mutually present, or generally- 
known to each other in regard to sex, it was not thought necessary, in the forma- 
tion of speech, to make different pronouns for distinguishing them in regard to 
sex. The personal pronouns of the first or the second person should therefore 
be parsed as of the common gender, unless the sex becomes morp definitely 



104 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. — PERSONS. 

known by some other word in the sentence. In the third person singular, how- 
ever, the different sexes are distinguished by personal pronouns adapted in gen- 
der to each. See p. 11. 

• 113. The pronoun i% usually regarded neuter only, is, I suspect, also of 
the common gender, when it stands for nouns of this gender, and sometimes 
when it denotes objects slightly personified. 

Ex. — " The tiger broke its chain." " The child has singed its frock." "The 
mouse ran back when it saw me." " Sleep never visits sorrow ; when it does, it is 
a comforter." — Shakespeare, 

• 114. Indeed, it seems that the three pronouns he, she, and it, may some- 
times refer to objects without special regard to sex ; he being preferred for what 
is large, bold, or preeminent ; she, for what is effeminate or dependent ; and it, 
for what is small, unimportant, or imperfectly known. I think I have noticed 
this principle often, especially in our mode of speaking of laboring animals and 
of pets. 

Ex. — " The elephant writhed his lithe proboscis." " The swan with her beauti- 
ful curving neck." " The sea-bird with its wild scream." " Her young the par- 
tridge led." — Bryant. In this last sentence, the other words make the feminine 
pronoun preferable. 



Persons. 

? The person of a word shows whether it refers to the speaker,, 
the object spoken to, or the object spoken of. 

? There are three persons; the Jirst, the second, and the third. 

The word persons is borrowed from stage-playing, and meant originally masks, characters, 
actors, or speakers on the stage ; and thence is derived its sense as used in grammar. 

? 115. The first person denotes the speaker. 

Ex. — "/ William Jones here certify, that," <fcc. " I who command you, am the 
general." " Many evils beset us mortals.' 1 ' 1 

? 116. The second person represents an object as spoken to. 

Ex. — " Henry, shut the door." "Friends, Romans, countrymen! lend me your 
ears." " O thou Almighty God, who didst create this wondrous world." " Forbid 
it, Justice" u O Liberty I what crimes are committed in thy name !" — Mad. Roland. 
W lien inanimate objects are addressed, they are of course personified. 

? 117. The tltird person represents an object as spoken of. 

Ex. — " The city is in a bowl of mountains." " I have read Webster 's reply to 
Hayne" " I am the man whom you wish to see." "To fail is disgraceful." 

The naming of the different persons as shown above, first, second, and third, is mi accord- 
ance with the natural order of full discourse ; as, " I James Bennett certifj'- to you, William 
Morrison, that Timothy Flint is the legal owner of this farm." It is also obvious, that we 
can refer, in speaking, only to ourselves, to something spoken to, or to something spoken of. 

? 118. When a noun comes after a verb to explain the nomina- 
tive, it is of the third person, though the nominative may be of the 
first or the second person. 

Ex. — "We are the patrons that will support you." "You are the person 
wanted." "I am sheriff of the county." u We are strangers here." " You are 
heroes." 

Person rather disappears from the words sheriff, strangers, and heroes, as here 
used without an article. Sheriff, for instance, does not seem to denote the speaker 
as such, nor a person spoken of as such, but is simply descriptive somewhat like 
an adjective. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. — NUMBERS. 105 

? 119. A word used in speaking of one or of a part of the persons 

speaking or addressed, is in the third person. 

Ex. — "Each one of us is studying his lesson." "Every one of you knows his 
duty." "Some of you have lost their places." (Speaking to a spelling-class.) 
"Some of you have lost your places," sounds perhaps better to some ears ; yet the 
former is the correct expression according to principle. 

? 120. The third person is sometimes elegantly used for the first 

or the second. 

Ex. — "The king is always willing to listen to the just complaints of his sub- 
jects ;" for, " I am always," &c. " Surely, my mother does not mean to marry me 
to such an old miser;" for, "Surely, mother, you do not," &c. 



Persons of pronouns. 

? 121. The pronouns of the first person plural, we, our, ours, etc., 
are used when the speaker includes others with himself; and some- 
times, to represent two or more persons as uttering the same thing 
together. 

Ex. — "Let us go." "John, Mary, and T, must learn our lessons." " We, the 
people," &c. — Constitution, of the U. $. " We are going to the mountains." — Rocky* 
Mountain Song. 

? 122. The pronouns of the second person plural, you, your, etc., 

are used to denote two or more persons addressed, or one only with 

others included. 

Ex. — " My countrymen, I appeal to you." "You boys may go and play." "You, 
sir, you were the boys that threw rocks through the windows." "You mechanics 
[speaking to one only] are required to work only ten hours per day." 

? 123. Hence it is, perhaps, that we and you, as well as they, 
sometimes refer to mankind generally. 

Ex. — " We are apt to love those who love us." "You may as well seek honey 
in gall, as happiness in vice." " Shakespeare presents to you the universal world." 
"They say that Buchanan will be elected." "They say that free governments will 
ultimately be established in all parts of the world." 

? When a pronoun refers to two or more substantives taken 
together, and of different persons, it prefers the first person to the 
second, and the second to the third. 

Ex. — " James and I have lost our horses." " James and you have lost your 
horses." 



Numbers. 

1 The number of a word shows whether the word refers to 
one object or to more than one. 

? There are two numbers ; the singular and the plural. 
? 124. The singular number denotes but one. 
Ex. — Apple, knife, pin, grain, flower, I, he, one, an, this, that. 

? 125. The plural number denotes more than one. 

Ex. — Apples, knives, grains, mice, flowers, we, they, one3, these, those. 



J 0(3 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. NUMBERS. 

? 126. Two or more singulars connected merely by and, are 
equivalent to a plural. 

Ex. — " John, James, and Thomas, are studying" =The hoys are studying. 

? 127. Two or more objects viewed one by one, or separately, 

Lave words referring to tliem in the singular number. 

Ex. — u Every heart best knows its own sorrows." " Neither Mary nor Mar- 
tha has studied her lesson." 

? 128. A possession or attribute relating in common to several 

objects, should generally be expressed by a singular word. 

Ex. — " It was done for our sake,'"' not salces. " Let them be content with their 
lot," not lots. " You and I have the same purpose, but different judgments." 

? 129. A proper noun, when pluralized, denotes a race or family, 

or two or more objects as having the same name or character. 

Ex. — " The Dixons and the Boltons." " The twelve Caesars," " Her Marions, 
Sumpters, Rutledges, and Pinkneys." 

? 130. Abstract or material nouns, as such, are never plural, ex- 
cept a few that have no singular form. 

Ex. — Pride, ambition, hope, motion, duration, business ; gold, copper, meat, 
hay, straw, specie, butter, cider, beer, molasses, ivy, fire, snow, mud, water, flax, 
silk, dust; ashes, oats. 

? 131. Sometimes they are pluralized to denote more hinds 
than one. 

Ex. — Diseases, fevers, vices, airs, wines, teas, cottons, silks, satins, taxes. 

? 132. Sometimes they denote two or more objects having the 

quality or substance, or else something as composed of parts. 

Ex. — Curiosities, slates, straws, timbers, proceedings, liberties, rights. " All 
the sisters are beauties." "The heights of Abraham, at Quebec." "My marbles." 
" I had only a few coppers left." " I heard the waters roar down the cataract." 

? 133. Some nouns that denote objects consisting of two parts, or 

conceived to consist of many parts or individuals, are always plural. 

Ex. — Tongs, scissors, lungs, embers, ashes, pincers, breeches, trousers, draw- 
ers, hose, bowels, entrails, intestines, billiards, calends, ides, nones, annals, 
archives, clothes, goggles, snuffers, stairs, head-quarters, poetics, riches, victuals, 
assets, teens, matins, vespers, hemorrhoids, hysterics, dreg*, bitters, filings, 
remains, obsequies, nuptials, chops, spatterdashes, statistics, folks, aborigines, 
antipodes, mammalia, grallse, passeres, sporades, regalia, paraphernalia, vetches, 
cattle, hustings, belles-lettres (bel-let'tr). Except, however, the class, furniture, 
jewelry, hosiery, etc., which are singular. 

. 134. Sometimes such a word may be used in the singular number to denote 
a part, or to denote the object as an individual, or to denote the entire collection 
as one thing. 

Ex. — " The left lung was diseased." " A stair ; a bellows ; the annal ; a valu- 
able statistic." 

? 135. Some nouns have the same form for either number. 

Ex. — Deer, sheep, swine, grouse, series, species, superficies, corps, apparatus, 
means. 

? 136. A collective noun is plural, even when singular in form 

yet plural in idea. 

Ex. — " The American people are jealous and watchful of their liberties." 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. NUMRERS. 107 

In a few instances, the same collective noun is used in both numbers in the 
same sentence, and perhaps not improperly. " Each House shall keep a journal of 
its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as 
may in their judgment require secrecy." — Constitution of 'the United States. "There 
is a trite in these mountains, who are fairer and more intelligent than the other 
Indians." — Irving. The first view refers to the whole ; and the other, to the 
individuals. 

? 137. Some nouns denoting animals, and also words of number 
preceded by a numeral adjective, are sometimes used in the sin- 
gular form to express a plural sense. 

Ex. — " This creek abounds in trout and perch.'''' — Exploring Expedition. To 
say, "in trouts and perches" might mean different kinds. " Fowl and Jish for 
sale." " Two pair ; three dozen; threescore; five hundred.'''' Here the numeral 
adjective seems of itself sufficient to determine or express the number. 

138. Foot and horse, in the sense of troops, and sail, in the sense of ships, 
are plural. Sometimes cannon and shot are plural : also head; as, "forty head.'''' 

? 139. In a word, the singular form of some words is some- 
times used for the plural form, though the latter may also be in 
good use. 

Ex. — " The foe! they come; they come." — Byron. "Where the heathen, in 
their blindness, bow down to stocks and stones." — Reoer. " All manner of evil." 
" To mould brick and burn them." " We have caught some Jish." 

" They had herrings and mackerels." " Trouts and salmons swim against the 
stream." "Fowls and fishes." "In scores and. dozens." "By hundreds and 
thousands." " Cannons and muskets." 

? 140. In using the singular form, the mind dwells perhaps 
rather on the nature than on the number of the objects, — on what 
is meant rather than on how many are meant. 

? 141. The singular form and the plural sometimes differ in 

sense, or are different words. 

Ex. — Arm, arms (weapons) ; letter, letters (literature) ; pain, pains (care) ; color, 
colors (banner) ; means, manners, morals, physics, ashes. 

1 142. Some nouns, though always plural in form, are considered 
to be either singular or plural, according as the mind conceives 
the thing as composed of parts, or as a single object of thought. 

Ex. — News, odds, means, amends,' alms, suds, mathematics, politics, ethics, 
physics, optics, mechanics, hydraulics, apocrypha, mumps, measles, rickets. "The 
measles have broken out thick upon him." " The measles is sometimes a danger- 
ous disease." " There the different politics of the day were discussed." "Poli- 
tics is an uncertain profession." " Can all that optics teach unfold thy form to 
please me so?" — Campbell's Rainbow. The tendency rather is, to construe such 
words plurally, except a few of the most common ones. Writers sometimes shun 
the doubtful construction, by saying, for instance, "The science of mathematics 
is" ; " Physical science is" . 

It is the sense rather than the form, that determines the number; hence mo- 
lasses, jeans, &c., are singular, though they end in s, A noun that makes sense 
with a or an before it, or is after it, is singular ; a noun that makes sense with two 
or these before it, or are after it, is plural. 



How tlie plural number is expressed. 

? 143. Most nouns become plural by adding s to the singular, 
Ex. — Book, books ; street, streets ; hat, hats ; river, rivers ; village, milages. 



108 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. NUMBERS. 

? 144. When s alone annexed, could not be easily pronounced ; 
and when the singular ends in ^, o, u, or y, preceded each by a 
consonant, — the plural is formed by adding es. 

Ex. — Church, churches; bench, benches; blush, blushes; miss, misses ; atlas, 
atlases; isthmus, isthmuses; topaz, topazes; tax, taxes ; alkali, alkalies; rabbi, 
rabbies; halo, haloes; negro, negroes; gnu, gnues ; story, stories ; "the Winneba- 
go-es ; the Missouri-es." 

? 145. Proper nouns, foreign nouns, and unusual nouns, are, 
changed as little as possible, and hence often assume s only. 

Ex. — Henry, Henrys ; Tully, Tally s 'Mary, Marys ; Cicero, Ciceros ; Scipio, 
Scvpios ; Nero, JVeros. " The two Miss Foots." Teocalli (Mexican temple), " teo- 
caUis ;" major-domo, " major-domos." — Prescott. " The novel is full of ohs, bys, 
whys, alsos, and noes." — fieview. And, owing to their foreign tinge, we still find 
in good use, cantos, grottos, juntos, mementos, octavos, porticos, quartos, solos, tyros, 
zeros, in stead of cantoes from canto, grottoes from grotto, juntoes from junto, etc., 
which are also coming into use. 

But when words of these classes are so familiarly known as to be easily recog- 
nized in almost any form, they are often pluralized like ordinary nouns ; as, Har- 
ries, Henries, Maries, Ptolemies, JVeroes, whies, noes. 

? 146. The following nouns change their ending into ves : — 

Beef, beeves ; calf, calves ; elf, elves ; half, halves ; knife, knives ; leaf, leaves ; 
life, lives ; loaf, loaves ; self, selves ; sheaf, sheaves ; shelf, shelves ; thief, thieves ; 
wife, wives ; wolf, wolves. Wharf has sometimes wharves — a heavier word for pro- 
nunciation. Staff has staves, when not compounded; but it should always have 
staffs, to distinguish its plural from staves, the plural of stave. 

? 147. For forming the plural of some words, no general rule 
can be given, and they are therefore said to be irregular. 

Man, men. Foot, feet. Ox, oxen. Cow, cows. L we. 

Woman, women. Goose, geese. Mouse, mice. Cow has also Jcine, Thou, you. 

Child, children. Tooth, teeth. Louse, lice, the old or poetic plural. He, they. 

The words ending in man, that are not compounds of man, are regular and take 
s; as, German, Germans; talisman, talismans; Mussulman, Mussulmans. 

? 148. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular plu- 
ral, but with a difference in meaning. 

Brother, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the same society). 

Die, dies (stamps for coining), dice (small cubes for gaming). 

Fish, fishes (individuals), fish (quantity, or the species). 

Genius, geniuses (men of genius), % genii (spirits). 

Index, indexes (tables of contents), indices (algebraic signs). 

Penny, pennies (pieces of money), pence (how much in value). 

Pea, peas (individuals — two or more), pease (m distinction from other vegetables). 

? 149. Most compound words are pluralized, by making plural 

only that part of the word which is described by the rest. 

Ex. — " Mouse-traps, ox-carts, brothers-in-law, sisters-in-law, billets-doux, 
courts-martial, aids-de-camp, cupfuls, spoonfuls, coachfuls, wagon-loads, com- 
manders-in-chief, cestuis que trust." It is generally the first part of a compound 
word, that is descriptive, or is used in the sense of a prefix. 

\ 150. When the compound word is a foreign term or other 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. NUMBERS. 109 

phrase, of which the descriptive part is not very obvious, the 

whole word is generally pluralized like a simple one. 

Ex. — " Piano-fortes, camera-obscuras, auto-da-fes, conge-d'-elires, louis-d'ors, 
flower-de-luces, tete-a-tetes, ipse-dixits, habeas-corpuses, scire-faciases, jack-a- 
ian terns." 

? 151. A few compound words have both parts made plural. 

Ex. — Man-servant, men-servants; woman-servant, women-servants; knight- 
templar, knights-templars (better, knights templar) ; ignis-fatuus, ignes-fatui." 

? 152. A. term composed of a proper name preceded by a 

title, is pluralized by annexing the plural termination to either, 

the name or the title, but not to both. 

Ex. — u The Misses Davidson; the Miss Browns; the Drs. Edmondson: the 
Messrs. Harper." "The Misses Warner." — Morris and Willis. "The Misses 
Smith." — Bryant. "The Miss Hor necks.'''' — Irving. "With respect to the Miss 
Thompsons, or the Misses Thompson, I am decidedly for the Miss Thompsons. — Ar- 
nolds Grammar: London. " Some persons would say the Miss Tttompsons, others 
the Misses Thompson : the former mode is clearly more in keeping with the general 
practice of the language, and one's leaning at first would be toward it; but those 
who plume themselves on their accuracy adopt the latter." — II. " From Duchesses 
and Lady Maries." — Pope. "I went to the Ladies Bailer." — Swift. "May there 
be Sir Isaac Newtons in every science." — Watts. 

? 153. But when the title is Mrs., or is preceded by a nume- 
ral, the latter noun is always pluralized. 

Ex.— "The Mrs. Welhys." "The two Mr. Barlows." "The two Miss Scotts 
had been gathering flowers."— Irving. " The two beautiful Miss darks." The 
word Miss, in such phrases, bears more resemblance to an adjective than to a 
noun: its use is similar to that of the adjectives in such phrases as, "The stingy 
old miser;" " The two stingy old misers." 

? 154. And the title is always pluralized, when it refers to two 
or more different or separate persons. 

Ex. — u Drs. Bruns, Edwards, and Johnson ;" "Misses Mary and Julia Harrison." 
In regard to the plural of names involving titles, there has been not a little of di- 
versity in practice and doctrine. Some always pluralize the title ; others, the 
name; and a few venture to pluralize both. The prevailing custom is, I believe, 
not to pluralize that word of the term which the speaker means to use as explana- 
tory or descriptive of the other. It would be an elegant distinction, and in the 
analogy of such plurals as teas, silks, wines, &q., to pluralize the title only, when 
brothers or sisters are meant ; and the name only, when the persons belong to dif- 
ferent families of the same name, — to say " the Misses Brown" when the ladies are 
sisters, and " the Miss Browns" when they are not. But as this distinction would 
sometimes perplex the writer in addressing persons whose family relations he does 
not know, it will probably never be adopted. To persons wishing a plain and 
positive rule, I would sav, Always pluralize the title only, when it is Mister, Miss, 
or Doctor, not preceded by a numeral ; as, " The Messrs. Morton ;" " The Misses 
Dixon;" "The Drs. Bolton;" " Drs. BolUm." This mode of pluralizing such 
terms will, I believe, ultimately prevail in this country ; and I rather think it has 
the best right to do so. It is a law of our language to vary proper names as little 
as possible ; some proper names can not well be pluralized ; many proper names 
have both the singular and the plural form, yet are singular in each, and mean dif- 
ferent persons. "Drs. Mott. Office," plainly denotes two men; but " Dr. Motts. 
Office," would probably be understood as denoting but one man. Besides, we 
always pluralize the title when but once used in speaking of several persons taken 
distributively ; as, " The Messrs. John and Thomas Wharton ;" " The Messrs. 
Newman and Patterson;" "The Messrs. Branch & Co.;" "James and William 
Sirnms, Esquires ;" and, to add the strongest argument in conclusion, I would say 
that almost all the advertisements which I have seen— at least thirty or forty — of 



110 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. NUMBERS. 



eminent schools conducted by an association of ladies or gentlemen of the same 
name, begin with "The Misses''' , or, "The Messrs, , will recom- 
mence," &c. 

Our language has many words adopted from other languages. These 
usually retain the same plural in ours that they have in the languages 
from which they were taken. Some, however, take the English plural 
only; some, the foreign only; and some, either. No certain rule can 
be given for forming such plurals, but the following may be of some 
assistance : — 

? 155. The termination us is changed to i; um or on, to a ; is, 
to es or ides • a, to ce. or ata ; and x or ex, to ces or ices, 

Those nouns of the following list, which have become so far naturalized as to have also a regu- 
lar plural like that of the natives, in addition to their original plural, are distinguished by Italics. 

GJiange final 

to m\ — 
Larva, 
Lam'ina, 
Macula, 
Minu'tia, 
Neb'ula, 
Sil'iqua, 
Simla, 
Scoria, 
Alumna, 
Alu'mina, 
Are' n a, 
Form'ula. 
A to ata :— » 
Dogma, 
Stigma, 
Mias'ma. 
Us to i : — 
Alumnus, 
Focus, 
Fungus, 
Genius, 
Ma'gus, 
Gb'olus, 
PoVypus, 
Ra'dius, 
Stimulus, 
CaFculus, 
Echinus, 
Nau'tilus, 
Nu'cleus, 

I believe the tendency is, to give the preference to the English plural in 
familiar language ; to the foreign, in technical or scientific language. 

? 156. Letters, figures, and other characters, are pluralized by 
adding J s. 

Ex.—" The a 1 8 and n's in the first line." " By 5's and Ts." " What mean 
those § 's and G's?" The apostrophe is used to prevent ambiguity; thus, "Cross 
your #8 and dot your Vs," is not the same as " Gross your ts ana dot your &." 5a 
might mean 5 shillings or five times s. 



Sarcophagus, 


Amanuen'sis, 


Calx, 


Va'rix. 


Hippopotamus, 


. Analysis, 


Ca'lix, 


Ex to ices: — i 


Um, on, to a : — 


Antithesis, 


Cic'atrix, 


Apex, 
Vertex, 


AnimaVculum, 


Basis, 


He'lix, 


Arca'num, 


Crisis, 


Ma'trix, 


Vortex, 


Automaton, 


Diaeresis, 


Ra'dix, 


Index. 


Grite f rion, 


Ellipsis, 


Quincunx, 


Caudex. 


Corrigeaa/dum, 


Emphasis, 






Da'tum, 


G'asis, 


PhaVanx, 


phalan'ges. 
larynxes. 


Desidera'tum, 


Borea'lis, 


Lar'ynx, 


Effluvium, 


Thesis, 


Beau, 


beaux. 


Ephem'eron, 


Phasis, 


Cherub, 


cher'ubim. 


Fnco'mium, 


Praxis, 


Ser'aph, 


ser'aphim. 


Erratum, 


Fascis, 


Sta'men, 


stam'ina. 


Gymna'sium, 


Diesis, 


Tegmen, 


teg'mina. 


ITerba'rium, 


Metamor'phosis 


\, Legu'men, 


legu'mina. 


Me'dium, 


Synopsis, 


Bandit, 


banditti. 


Memorandum, 


Parenthesis, 


Virtuo'so, 


virtu o'si. 


Momentum, 


Hypothesis, 


Cicero'ne, 


cicero'ni. 


Phenomenon, 


Synthesis, 


Litterateur 7 , 


literati. 


Scho'lium, 


Metropolis. 


Ge'nus, 


genera. 

Messieurs. 


Spec'ulurn, 


Is to ides : — 


Monsieur, 


Stra'tum, 


Chrys'alis, 


Madame, 


Mesdames. 


Men'struum, 


Ephem'eris, 


Mr. 


Messrs. 


Spectrum, 
yin'culum, 


Can'tharis, 


Ignis-fat'wiis, 


ignes-fatui. 


Epidermis, 


Hia'tus, 


hiatus. 


Trapezium, 


A'phis, 


Apparatus, 


apparatus. 


Parhelion, 


Apsis, 


Vertigo, 


vertigines. 


Aphelion, 


Iris, 


Billet-doux, 


billets-doux. 


Perihelion. 


Proboscis. 


Ma'lum prohib' 


- mala prohibita, 


Is to es : — 


X to ces : — 


itum, 




Axis, 


Appendix, 







NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. NUMBERS. Ill 



Numbers of Pronouns. 

? 157. In editorials, speeches, and proclamations, we, our, etc., 
are frequently used to denote apparently but one. 

Ex.—" We trust these sentiments will meet with approbation." " We believe 
provisions will be scarce." " We shall not yield to our rebellious subjects." 

This manner of speaking gives generally an air of modesty or authority to the 
assertion ; the speaker seeming to deliver his own sentiments as if they were also 
entertained, or could be enforced, by others as well as by himself. Let a writer in 
an influential periodical say, " / believe there is an impending crisis in the money 
market," and who cares for or heeds his assertion ? but let him say, " We believe 
there is an impending crisis in the money market," and the expression will at once 
strike alarm and terror into the hearts of thousands. The one is presented as the 
opinion of the writer only, the other as that of the community. But the palpable 
use of we for I, is, like some other politeness, unsupported by nature and good 
sense. Some one has said, that it is as if the person were ashamed to show his face. 
It is generally assumed as a veil of modesty, or to avoid " the charge of egotism." 
Many of the greatest masters of our language, namely, Johnson, Whateley, Web- 
ster, and others, have not been afraid or ashamed to use the abhorred I. An 
author may sometimes use we, not in reference to his party, or the world generally, 
but simply in reference to his reader as going along with him, — a sort of grandpa 
style ; but when there is no reference whatever to any others than himself, the use of 
we for /may be more polite, yet it is certainly less correct. Authors often avoid the 
dilemma, by speaking of themselves in the third person. When responsibility or an 
unenviable position is to be assumed, it is obviously more polite to use /than we. 

To the foregoing manner of speaking, ourself is peculiarly adapted, and it is 
sometimes used accordingly • but yourself is strictly singular. " What then re- 
mains? Our self.' 1 '' — Pope's Vunciad ; The Goddess of Dullness. 

? 158. You, your, yours, etc., are now singular as well as plural. 

" It is altogether absurd to consider you as exclusively a plural pronoun in the 
modern English language. It may be a matter of history, that it was originally 
used as a plural only ; and it may be a matter of theory, that it was first applied 
to individuals on a principle of flattery ; but the fact is, that it is now our second 
person singular. When applied to an individual, it never excites any idea either 
of plurality or of adulation ; but excites, precisely and exactly, the idea that was 
excited by thou, in an earlier stage of the language." — Lord Jeffrey : Edinburgh 
Review. 

The Quakerism of Murray and Brown accounts for their partiality to Thou. 

? 159. When a pronoun stands for two or more nouns taken 
together, that are equivalent in sense to a plural, or when any- 
one of the substantives referred to is plural, the pronoun must be 
plural ; but when it refers to a singular implying more than one 
object, or to several singulars taken separately or individually, it 
must be singular. 

Ex. — " John and James are studying their lessons." " Neither the father nor 
the sons ever surrendered their rights." "Every one should have his own place." 
11 A person should never be very sanguine in his expectations." 

? 160. Each other applies to two only, or to pairs; one another, 

to more than two. 

Ex.— " The brother and sister love each other." " Wives and husbands are, in- 
deed, incessantly complaining of each other." — Johnson. "Put the dozen cups 
within one another." " The several Indian chiefs made peace with one another." 



112 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. CASES. 

? 161. What, in close connection with a plural, is sometimes 
used in the plural number. 

Ex. — " We were now at the mercy of what are called guerillas." — Travels in 
Mexico. " I must now turn to the faults, or what appear such to me." — Byron. 

Other was formerly sometimes used for others. 

Another=an other ; hence, singular. 

? None (no-one) is singular or plural, and it is generally used for no and a 
noun. * 

For more in regard to the Numbers of Pronouns, see page S. See also pp. 178-9, 



Cases, 

? The cases are the relations of substantives to the other words 
of a sentence. 

? There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective. 

Some grammarians give another case, — the independent, or absolute ; but there seems 
to be no more propriety in distinguishing this case from the nominative, than there would be 
in dividing the differently governed objective cases into two or three classes. 

? 162. The nominative case is the case of a substantive to 

which a predicate directly refers. 

Ex. — " The moon shines beautifully upon the garden." " John and James are 
playing, but you and / are studying." " The murderer was hanged." u Dear 
are the recollections of youth." " The sum of five thousand dollars was paid." 
The nominative can always be found by asking a question with who or what before 
the verb. " The river is "deep." What is deep ? The river. 

? 163. The nominative case is the case of a substantive that 
is used independently or absolutely, or whose case depends on no 
other word. 

Ex. — Independently: "John, you may go for some water." "You may 
recite, Mart/." " Mr. President, it is natural for man to indulge in the illusions of 
Hope." " Kise, fellow-men ! our country yet remains." " Ye flowers that cluster 
by eternal frosts." " And Harry's flesh it fell away." u He that hath ears to hear, 
let him hear." " Absalom ! Absalom ! my son, my son !" "Reputation ! repu- 
tation ! oh, I have lost it !" " And then she died, poor thing !" " Webster's Dic- 
tionary, Unabridged." California: what can you say about it!" " His bed and 
board I he never had any !" 

w The isles of Greece ! the isles of Greece ! 
Where burning Sappho loved and sung." — Byron. 

The student can observe, that the Italicized words neither govern other words 
nor are they governed by other words. Such substantives generally occur in ad- 
dresses or in exclamations ; or, rather, they are used to direct the attention of some 
one addressed, to what the speaker says, or else to draw attention to what the 
word denotes. Sometimes, as in the last example above, they imply that the 
speaker's feelings are so enkindled by the contemplation of the object, that the 
flood of accumulated feeling bursts forth at once, and without an effort on his part. 

In the sentence, " Fiddle-sticks ! who cares for what he thinks ?" fiddle-sticks 
is simply an interjection, because it is used as the mere index of a sudden emo- 
tion, and is not uttered to draw attention to the musical implements themselves. 

Absolutely : "Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. " / being sick, the busi- 
ness was neglected." " Flash following flash, we had but little hope." " The 
work being done, we went to the river to fish"=When the work was done, &c, 
"His being & foreigner, was the cause of his defeat"= He was defeated because be 
was a foreigner. " No one was aware of his being a runaway ;" better, " No one 
was aware that he was a runaway." " To become a spendthrift, is easy"=A per- 
son may easily become a spendthrift. " To be a respectable preacher or doctor, is 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. CASES. 113 

easier than to "be a respectable lawyer." u The wolf [being] at bay, the dogs barked 
the more." " What more could they do, a youth [being] their leader." " My 
duty as [being] her instructor." " His nomination, as [to be] bishop [German, * als 
Bischof zu sein'=as bishop to be], was confirmed." By a more strained supply of 
words, Rule 7th may be applied in the last two examples : " Mr duty, considered 
as being her instructors" [duty]. " His nomination, considered as to be the bish- 
op's" [nomination], &c. 

By carefully examining the foregoing examples, the student can observe that 
the phrases having substantives used absolutely, are but abridged expressions for 
clauses beginning with when, while, since, because, or inasmuch as, &c. ; and that 
when they are converted into clauses, they become nominatives according to Rule 
1st or 7th. 

The early tendency of our language rather was, to express substantives used absolutely, 
in the objective case, according to the analogy of Greek and Latin; and Milton wrote, " Him 
[being] destroyed, or won to what may work his utter loss." But modern custom is de- 
cidedly in favor of the nominative. 

? A noun of the first or the second person, is never used as the subject of 
a verb. 

Ex. — "I William Smith believe," &c. u Children, obey your parents." Be- 
lieve agrees with /, as its nominative ; and obey with ye, or you, understood. 



? 164. The possessive case denotes an object to which some- 
thing belongs or pertains. 

The word in the possessive case may denote the originator, or the first 
owner, or the full owner, or a partial owner, or a temporary owner, or an 
intended owner, or the whole object comprising the thing possessed as a 
part. The other substantive may denote a material object, a quality, an 
action, or a state. 

Ex. — " Irving's works ; Harper's Ferry: my horse; my father; my country; 
my cup and saucer ; men's and boys' boots tor sale here ; my head; my sufferings." 
"John's brother — happiness — haste — running — sleeping." "Nature's gifts." "He 
bought a place in Boone's settlement, called Kemper's farm." "The master's 
slave and the slave's master." "Ambition's rise may be virtue's fall." " The lily's 
beauty." " India's coral strand." " John's head is large." 

? 165. The possessive case of every noun not ending in the 

sound of 5, is indicated by annexing 's. 

Ex. — " Harry's slate ; the children's books ; Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; for 
the Atridse's sake." The '5 is a contraction of the old possessive sign, es or is ; 
as, " The kingis crowne ;" " In widdowes habite." — Chaucer. 

? 166. To plurals ending in s, only the apostrophe (') is added; 

and to nouns of the singular number, ending in the sound of s, '# 

is added, but sometimes the apostrophe only. 

Ex. — " Boys 1 sports;" "Mechanics 1 Bank." "Charles's affairs." — Prescott. 
"Louis's reign." — Macaulay. "Mr. Brooks's integrity." — E. Everett. "King 
James's Bible." — Geo. P. Marsh. " Brookes's translation." — Id. " Morris and 
Willis's Office."— A 7 ! P. Willis. "The title of Phillips's dictionary."— J. E. Wor- 
cester. " Confucins's system." — 0. cf or d Professor : England. "Some of -ZEschy- 
lus's and Euripides's plays open m this manner." — Blair's Uhetoric. " Demos- 
thenes's life." — lb. " From Stiles's pocket into Nokes's." — Hudibras. "Dennis's 
Works." — Pope. " Miss's line lunardi." — Burns. "Adonis's death." — Mrs. Brown- 



ing. " In King James' Version." — R. G. White. "In the Countess's speech."- 
Id. "Bullions' Grammar." — Bullions. " Sanders' Series of Headers." — Sanders. 
" Davies' Mathematics." — Davits. 

The phrases "For conscience' sake," "For goodness' sake," "For Jesus' 
sake," are rather idiomatic exceptions than fair illustrations of a general principle. 
It has been said that the possessive s may be omitted, when each of the last two 
syllables of the possessive word begins with an a-sound, and the next word also be- 
gins with an 5-sound ; as, " Augustus' speech." 



114 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. CASES. 

In poetry, when the singular ends in a hissing sound, the 5 may be used or 
omitted to suit the poet's convenience; but in prose, I think it should gen- 
erally be used where it is omitted. If not too many hissing sounds come to- 
gether, and if the possessive s would not be too far removed from an accented 
syllable, it should doutbless be used ; and in other cases, of is probably always 
preferable. People do not hesitate to write, " The horse's heels;" " The young 
prince's father." And, if sound is to determine the use or the omission of the s, 
I can not see why many other words are less entitled to the s than such words 
as these. Few full possessives would be harsher or heavier than such plural 
words as glasses, carcasses, atlases, duchesses, actresses, &c, which nobody hesi- 
tates to use when needed. Besides, the s is often needed to make the sense clear. 
"Watt's works" and "Watts' works" are intelligible only to the eye, and 
should be " Watt's works" and "Watts's works." I can not concur with Dr. 
Bullions, in the propriety of omitting the s in written language, but retaining it 
in spoken. Let language be written as it is spoken ; at least, let us not intro- 
duce any more anomalies in this respect. 

A harsh possessive may often be avoided by converting it into an adjective, or 
by using of. "A fox's tail"= A fox tail ; " Bunker Hill" is now more commonly 
used than' " Bunker's Hill ;" and " Lucas Place" is quite as intelligible as " Lu- 
cas's Place;" "Hastings' trial" or "Hastings's trial"=The trial of Hastings. 
" Socrates' s life and death"=The life and death of Socrates; " John's brother's 
wife's sister"=The sister of John's brother's wife. But " A summer's day" is 
not necessarily equivalent to " A summer day:" nor does of always imply posses- 
sion ; as, "A spring of clear water ;" " To have some idea of the subject." 

? 167. When two or more consecutive words, taken together, are 

used to denote but one possessor, or when the same object belongs 

to several in common, the possessive sign is usually annexed but 

once, and immediately before the name of the object possessed, but 

not always to the word in the possessive case. 

Ex. — "William Henry Harrison's election;" "Her Majesty Queen Victoria's 
government;" "The Bishop of Landaff's residence ;" " At Hall's, the baker." 
" The captain of the Fulton's wife died yesterday." Here captain is in the posses- 
sive case, governed by wife ; and Fulton in the objective case, governed by of. "The 
Duke of Wellington's achievements." Hers Duke of Wellington's maybe parsed 
as one noun, so also may Bishop of Landaff's, and most such expressions. " Bar- 
ton, Hutchinson, and Spotswood's store." Here Barton, Hutchinson, and Spots- 
wood's, are each in the possessive case, governed by store. " Barton's, Hutchin- 
son's, and Spotswood's store" =Barton's store, Hutchinson's store, and Spotswood's 
store ; or, Barton's and Hutchinson's are governed by store understood. 

The various sorts of terms or phrases that may denote possessors, and the best 
modes of expressing the sense of the possessive case wherever difficulties present 
themselves, may be briefly noticed as follows : — 

Monosyllables ending with the sound of s, — 's ; dissyllables, — 's or of, 
rarely * ; words of more syllables, — of rarely ', or else 's, when the last 
syllable thus formed is not too far from the primary or the secondary 
accent. 

Ex. — "Sparks's Washington;" " Edwards's West Indies;" "The landing of 
Cornwallis, "Euphrates' banks." 

Compound names, — sign to the last word. " Edward Everett's Works." 

Complex names, or single terms with single adjuncts, — sign to the 
last word, or use of; with adjuncts or compound adjuncts, — of 

Ex. — " The Duke of Wellington's residence ;" " The Report of the Secretary of 
the Navy ;" " The wife of a member of Congress ;" " An Act of the Legislature of 
the State of New York." 

Apposition, the two terms used like one name, — sign at the end ; prin- 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. CASES. 115 

cipal term, with explanatory part short, — sign to either, but not to both ; 
explanatory part long, or consisting of two or more nouns, — sign to the 
first, or use of. 

Ex. — u The Emperor Napoleon's grave ;" " At Smith's, the bookseller ;" " At 
Smith the bookseller's;" u Mr. Crawford's Eeport, the Secretary of the Trea- 
sury;" better, "The Eeport of Mr. Crawford, the Secretary of the Treasury ;" "The 
psalms of David, the king, priest, and poet of the Jews ;" " From the death of Ed- 
ward the Third to the reign of Queen Elizabeth ;" " The residence of George Clin- 
ton, ex-governor of New York, and vice-president of the United States." 

Series of terms, and common possession, — sign to the last term ; but 
not common possession, — sign to each term. 

Ex. — "Bolton, Dixon, and Glover's farm;" " Bolton's, Dixon's, and Glover's 
farm." "Bolton, Dixon, and Glover's farms," rather implies joint or common pos- 
session. " Bolton's, Dixon's, and Glover's farms," implies that each man owns two 
or more farms. 



? 168. The objective case is the case of a substantive used 

as the object of a transitive verb or of a preposition. 

Ex. — "Mary plucked a fresh rose" "I saw Mary plucking a fresh rose." 
" Mary went to pluck a fresh rose." " A clear stream from the mountain flowed 
down the valley." " Whom do you see?" "I saw him gathering apples." "I 
came to hear hi?n, or with the expectation of hearing him." ^The word in the ob- 
jective case can be readily found by asking a question with whom or what after the 
verb or preposition. Thus, " The soldiers carried their bleeding companion to the 
river." Carried whom ? Companion. To what ? River. 

? 169. The object may be a verbal noun, or consist of an entire 

phrase or clause. 

Ex. — " My brother likes to study, but I like running and jumping better than 
studying." "He knew to build the lofty rhyme." " You do not consider how 
little most people care for what is not to their interest ." "I ordered the horse to be 
brought." To determine whether a verb followed by a clause or a phrase is transi- 
tive, we must consider whether a noun or a pronoun put in the place of the phrase 
or clause, would be governed by the verb or preposition. 

As an entire clause may be the object of a verb or preposition, so may an 
entire phrase beginning with a substantive followed by an infinitive. The 
governing word does not govern the noun or pronoun alone, yet it has sufficient 
influence over it, as a part of its object (a part otherwise uncontrolled.) to de- 
termine its case ; and this influence is sufficient for the application of Rule 4th 
or 5th. 

Ex. — " Let me finish the problem." u I desire you to go." " I supposed him to 
be your brother." "He commanded the hone to be brought." "One word is too 
often profaned for me to profane it." 

The effort has been made several times, to implant from the Latin into the English, 
a Eule for "the subject of the infinitive;" but; most grammarians have discarded the 
innovation -without even deigning to give it a critical notice or a formal rejection. I too in- 
cline to reject it. " Rule XL The infinitive has sometimes a subject in the objective case." — 
Butler's Grammar. Objections : — 1. The English language never allows an object before 
an infinitive, unless there is at the same time a governing word before the object ; but 
the Latin sometimes allows an intransitive verb before such an object, and therefore dif- 
fers from our language, and requires a Rule for the subject of the infinitive. Wo can say, 
" Gaudeo te valere :" but not, "I rejoice thee to be well." 2. Though Mr. Butler's few ex- 
amples are plain and plausible enough, as examples made or selected for a Rule usually are, 
yet it is impossible to tell, in every instance, whether the object should be parsed as the 
"subject" of the infinitive or as the " object" of the preceding verb. 3. The participle has 
sometimes as good a right to such a subject as the infinitive ; thus, " I saw the sun rise" 
and "I saw the snn rising" differ no more than " The sun rises'" and " The sun is rising." 

? 1*70. A passive verb, since it converts its object into its subject, 
can not have an object. 



116 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. CASES. 

? 171. A few verbs may have two different objects at once, pro- 
vided they can govern them as well separately. 

Ex. — u He asked me a question" =" He asked me" and "He asked a ques- 
tion ;" but " He gave me a question," is not equivalent to " He gave me" and " Ho 
gave a question." 

When a verb governing two objects is made passive, either object, but not 
both, may be made the nominative. The other object remains in the objective 
case ; but as a passive verb can not govern an object, the other object, if it de- 
notes the person, is governed by a preposition expressed or understood ; and if 
it denotes the thing, it may be referred to Rule 6th. 

Ex. — " My mother taught me arithmetic" =1 was taught arithmetic by my 
mother, or, Arithmetic was taught (to) me by my mother. Observe the difference : 
11 James struck him* a blow*'" " James wrote hvm b a letter*'" " James called him* 
his friend 7 ." 

? 172. The objective case is the case of a substantive used 
without a governing word, and limiting or modifying like an ad- 
verb or adjunct some other word. 

Ex. — " I do not care & straw?" Care not how much? "The wall was 1200 
feet long, and 40 feet hi^h." How long? how high ? "It was richly worth a dol- 
lar." Worth how much? " We went home." Whither? " The slippered pan- 
taloon, a world too wide." — Shah. How much too wide ? " He is head and heels in 



debt." To what extent? "She walks [like] a queen." " Now he trips a lady, 
and now he struts a lord." — Pope. "He wore his coat cloak fashion. How? 
"He is nothing too good for such conduct." " I was taught grammar." Taught 
as to what ? Sometimes a substantive may be referred to the foregoing principle, 
or parsed at once as an adverb. Some grammarians prefer to consider such ex- 
pressions elliptical, and to supply a preposition, which can generally be done with- 
out straining the matter very far. 

? 173. There are expressions, however, obviously elliptical. 

Ex.— "Dr. Rush, No. 340, Pearl Street, Philadelphia, Penn."=-2& Dr. Rush, 
at No. 340, on Pearl Street, in Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania. "Jan. 1st, I860"— 
On the first day of January, in the year 1860. " Ah me !"=Ah, what has hap- 
pened to me ! So, " Me miserable !" or else it may be considered simply a Latin- 
lsm, used by Milton for the nominative absolute. 



Same Case. 

? 174. A substantive that does not bring another person or thing 

into the sentence, and is used merely for explanation, emphasis, or 

description, must be in the same case as the one denoting the person 

or thing. 

Ex. — " Company, villainous company, has been the ruin of me." " I Joseph 
Walter, a justice of the peace, certify," &c. " Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, 
was a brave man." " I, also /, am an American." " The Emperor Napoleon's 
grave." " This book is John's, my classmate." "It was I." " We will go our- 
selves." " They crowned him hina." " His purse was wealth, his word a bond." 
" Will sneaks a scrivener, an exceeding lenave." The one substantive may be called 
the principal term ; and the other, the explanatory term. 

? 175. Frequently, the explanatory term is predicated or assumed 
of the other, by means of some neuter, intransitive, or passive verb. 
The explanatory term is then usually called a predicate-substantive. 
The verb, if any other than be, shows how the title or character- 
istic is acquired or made known. * 



Ex. — " The world is but a stage, and all the men and women [are] merely i.„ t 
ers." "My friend was appointed judge." " Tom struts a soldier." " The soldiers 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.— CASES. 117 

sent a petition requesting him to become their leader — a petition for him to become 
their leader.'''' Such a predicate-substantive after verbs not finite, is in the nomi- 
native case whenever there is no preceding object to control its case. 

? 176. When not attached to the other term by means of a verb, 
the explanatory term is said to be in apposition, and is called the 
appositive. 

Ex. — " "Webster, the orator and statesman, was related to Webster the lexi- 
cographer." " At Smith's, the bookseller." " A firth, or frith." " As a statesman, 
he had great ability." 

Predication and apposition are fundamentally the same. "When the explana- 
tory term is predicated, it seems to be first made known that such an attribute 
belongs to the person or thing. Afterwards we use apposition ; or when the 
attribute is already well known or easily perceived, and we wish to assert some- 
thing else. Thus, " Mr. Jones was a saddler, but now he is a merchant." After- 
wards we may say, M Mr. Jones the merchant, is a bankrupt." 

? Apposition frequently enables us to distinguish different per- 
sons of the same name, by means of their profession, occupation, or 
character. 

? 177. Sometimes two objects follow certain verbs : the one 
simply denoting the person or thing; and the other, as affected 
by the act. 

Ex. — " They named her Mary.'''' " They elected him Mayor." 

That the latter substantive is rather in apposition with the former than governed by the 
verb, seems evident tome from the following consideration: " They named her Mary"— 
Make her the nominative, and Miru at once becomes a nominative too, so as to agree with 
it; as, "She was named Mary." 1 But, " He taught me grammar 11 — Make me the nomina- 
tive, and grammar still remains in the objective case; as, "J was taught grammar." 

? 178. The explanatory term sometimes precedes the other, or 

the verb. 

Ex. — " Child of the Sun, refulgent Summer comes." " Who is he ?" "A man 
he was to all the country dear." " Who is his friend?" This last is an ambiguous 
expression. If friend is the explanatory term, the sentence means, " Is any one 
friendly to him \ has he any friends at all?" If uho is explanatory, the meaning 
is, " What sort of man is his friend ?" 

? 179. It is not always necessary that the explanatory term should 

agree with the other in any thing else than case. 

Ex. — " Our liberties, our greatest blessing, we shall not give up so easily." 
" His meat was locusts and wild honey" " Eyes was /to the blind, and feet to the 
lame." 

? 180. The whole is sometimes again mentioned by a distributive 
word, or by words denoting the parts; and sometimes the separate 
persons or things are summed up in one emphatic word denoting 
the whole. 

Ex. — " They bore each a banner." " The words pleasure and pain." " The 
two love each [loves the] other." (See Pronouns, p. 100.) "Time, labor, mouey. 
all were lost." Or else Rule 7th may be applied to time, labor, and money, ana 
Rule 1st to all. 

u But those that sleep, and think not of their sins, 
Pinch them, arms, legs, backs, shoulders, sides, and shins." — Shakespeare. 
To this head, also such expressions as " The stars disappeared one by one," 
"Thev perished man by man," may sometimes be more properly referred. — See 
Adverb, p. 208. 



118 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. CASES. 

? 181. The principal or the explanatory term may be any ordi- 
nary noun, a verbal noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. 

Ex. — " Music, sphere-descended maid.'' 1 "It was my pride \ to govern justly." 
"Promising is not paying.' 1 '' "It is an admitted truth, \ that honesty is the best 
policy." " Who is he ?" " The phrase, J ' not at alV, is an idiom.'''' " Our doom is, 
* Earth to earth, and dust to dust P " "I resolved to pay as I go, — a resolution which 
I have ever kept." 

1 182. The explanatory term is sometimes cut off from the other 

by a governing word, and may then be different in case. 

Ex. — " In the month of September." " Yonder is the city of St. Louis." u Ho 
was sent with us for a guide. " I hurt myself." 

? 183. The explanatory term is essentially an adjective element. 

Ex. — u He was a hero"=Re was heroic. " Every heart was joy"=~Every heart 
■was joyful. " They called him a patriot ;" " They called him patriotic." "Slug- 
gish in youth, he," &c.=A sluggard in youth, he, &c. 



Cases off Pronouns.. 

For the Declension of Pronouns, see p. 8. 

? Ours, yours, hers, and theirs, should always, and mine and thine 
should generally, be considered equivalent to the other possessive 
pronoun and the name of the object possessed, and then be parsed 
accordingly. 

Ex. — " He ate his apple, you ate yours [your apple], and I ate mine" [my ap- 
ple]. Yours is not governed by a noun understood, for the noun could not be put 
after it ; but it is equivalent to your and a noun. 

In familiar language, these words are sometimes used in a peculiar idiomatic 
way : thus, " This law of yours," may mean, " This law of your laws ;" but, " This 
head of yours," " That father of yours," " This poor self of mine," are not equi- 
valent to " This head of your heads," "This father of your fathers," " This poor 
self of my selves." Perhaps we may, in parsing, treat such phrases thus : " This 
head of yours" =" This head of your possession ;" or in some other similar way. 

f 184. Before vowel sounds or the aspirate h, mine and thine are 
sometimes preferred, in the solemn style, to my and thy. 

Ex. — " Blot out all mine iniquities." — Bible. "Thine altar." — Whittier. 

? 185. The compound personal pronouns are used only in the nomi- 
native and the objective case ; and for both they have the same form. 

? 186. To express emphatic distinction in the possessive case, we 

use the word own instead of self or selves. 

Ex. — " Let every man attend to Ms own business, and every woman gossip 
about her own faults." " Selfish men always take care of themselves, and their 
own property." 

? In the objective case, the simple pronoun is sometimes used for 
the compound, especially in poetry. 

Ex. — " I thither went, and laid me down on the green bank." — Milton. " I set 
me down a pensive hour to spend." — Goldsmith. 

It is worthy of notice, that the compound pronouns of the first and second 
persons take the possessive simple pronoun ; and those of the third person, the 
objective. 

? Who and which are declined, and have the same form in both 

numbers. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 119 

? 187. Whose may be used as the possessive ofivhich or that, when 
needed. 

Ex, — " A party whose leaders are corrupt" =A party of which the leaders are 
corrupt. " It is the same man whose horse we caught." 

? 188. What, that, and as, are used in two cases only ; the nomi- 
native and the objective. 

? 189. What is never changed in form. 

? 190. What, used as a common relative pronoun, and other ex- 
pressions of the same kind, may have a twofold construction in re- 
gard to case. 

• This is the substance of Rule 8th, which applies to what, its compounds, 
to some nouns preceded by such adjectives as what or which, and to any other 
relative ivhenever the sense requires two cases, and the form of the word does not 
prevent it from being adapted to express both. 

Should Rule 8th seem a peculiar one, we answer that it applies to a class of peculiar ex- 
pressions. There is not room here to present an array of arguments in favor of our position. 
Suffice it to say, that we endeavor to accept the language, so far as possible, as we find it ; 
and that what such expressions were in former or ancient times, is no proof of what they are 
now. There was a time when every steamboat-engine had a balance-wheel, but now the 
water-wheel performs the office of that wheel too ; and who would think of putting a balance- 
wheel into a drawing of such an engine, when the wheel is no longer needed or used? Be- 
sides, the kindred words, when, where, and while, are usually parsed as modifying a word in 
each of two different clauses ; and participial nouns are frequently parsed as performing a 
double office. Furthermore, the parsing is much simplified. 

? 191. When what is interrogative or responsive, it is needed in but one case, 
depending in construction on some word in its own clause. When the form of 
the relative prevents it from furnishing two cases, it must take the form required 
for its own clause, and a, suitable antecedent must be supplied for the other 
clause ; but then the ever or soever must - be omitted. See Compound Rela- 
tives, p. 98. 

! Remember, in parsing, that the antecedent never relates to a word 
in the relative clause, but frequently refers to one beyond it. 

Ex. — " The boy who trifles away his time, will be wretched in manhood." Boy 
is in the nominative case, not to trifles, but to will be. 

192. One, other, and another, are declined like nouns. 



EXERCISES. 
Examples to be Analyzed and Parsed. 

Furse the nouns and the pronouns : — 

1. 

A fisherman's 3 boat 1 carried the passengers 4 to a small island 5 . Napo- 
leon Bonaparte defeated the allies at the battle of Austerlitz. Milton's 
Paradise Lost and Young's ISTight Thoughts are great poems 7 . Fifty painted 
Indians from Minnesota went down the Mississippi, on the Black Hawk. 
Education expands and elevates the mind. Religion refines and purifies 
the affections. Spices are brought from the East Indies. 

2. 

I will use John's book, and you may use Mary's. Great hypocrisy 
characterized a part of Louis XIV' s reign. John's wife's sister is in town. 
I have read Charles de Moor's Remorse, and the Introduction to Loomis's* 



120 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 

Legendre's Geometry. The literati of Europe are famous for profound eru- 
dition. Mexico lies between the Pacific Ocean 5 and the Gulf of Mexico 5 . 
The little company then sailed to the Azores. I have just heard a lecture 
on the useful 5 . Kome from her throne of beauty ruled the world. The 
clouds' 2 dispersing, we renewed our journey. Scotland"! there is magic in 
the sound. 

Prefer, my son 2 , the toils of Hercules, 

To dalliance, banquets, and ignoble ease. % 

3. 

I 1 will never forsake you 4 . We should always prefer our 3 duty to our 
pleasure. He is not content with his situation. I seated myself next 10 to 
the window. Joseph bought the book for himself 9 * 5 . Man 2 ! know thy- 
self a* 4 : all wisdom centres there. The Indians often paint themselves. 
The party reposed themselves on the shady la A T n. 

4- 
The poor widow lost her 9 & 3 only son. John and James know their 9 * 3 
lessons. Neither John nor James knows his 9 * 3 lesson. Where confidence 
has been destroyed, it seldom revives. The deer waved its branchy head. 
It is wicked to scoff 7 at religion. It is too early for flowers. It happened 
on a lovely summer's day. It rains. It went hard with him. She is 
handsome, and she knows it 9 * 4 . My heart beats yet, but hers b I can 
not feel ! 

5. Antecedent Expressed. 

The man who & * neglects his 9 * 3 business, will soon be without busi- 
ness. That* man is enslaved who can not govern himself. How beautiful 
are yonder willows, which overshadow the little river ! Sarah has plucked 
the prettiest rose that 9 & l bloomed in the garden. The traveler described 
very accurately such things as he remembered. She has already as many 
troubles as she can bear. The sister has the same traits of character as c 
her brothers. 

6. Antecedent not Expressed. 

Many blessings has the world derived from those whose origin was 
humble. Assist such d as need thy assistance. Who 8 has not virtue, is 
not truly wise. I saw whom 8 I wanted to see. I love whoever 1 loves 
me. Whoever 8 violates this rule, shall pay a fine. Whomsoever 8 you 
send, I will cheerfully instruct. 

I remember what 6 was said. He reads whatever 8 is instructive. Fops 
are more attentive to what 8 is showy, than mindful of what 8 is necessary. 
Whatever purifies the heart, also fortifies it. Whatever he found, he took. 
Whatsoever he doeth, shall prosper. Whatever money 8 I had, I spent. 
Conscience wakes the bitter memory of e what 7 he 1 was, what he is, and 
what must be. 

8. 

Who 1 first crossed the Alps ? — Hannibal 1 . What constitutes a State ? 
My countrymen, oh what 10 a fall was there ! What 4 means this martial 
array? Which belongs to you ? Do you know e who 1 said so? I know 
not who said so. Who can tell e whom 4 he meant? What 7 is it 1 that 9 * 4 
you want ? I never heard what e it was that brought him here. What 
country is better than ours b ? — None 1 . Which man was hurt? What 10 
man 8 but enters, dies. Take whichever horse 8 you like. On whichsoever 
side we cast our eyes, we saw nothing but 14 ruins. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 121 



Gentle reader, whoever 7 thou 1 art, remember this. I believe no other 
author whatever 10 would advance the same doctrines. I tell you what f , 
my son, those friends of ours have forgotten us. My son, whatever 4 the 
world may say, adhere to what 8 is right. Whatever you undertake, do it 
well. Whomsoever he Ends, him he will send. 

10. 

She took the good ones, and left the others. iSTone are perfectly good. 
Mankind slay one another in cruel wars. They deemed each other 4 
oracles 7 of law. Pity from you is dearer than that from another. Who 
is there to mourn for Logan ? Not one. 

11. 

Johnson the doctor 7 is a brother 7 of Johnson the lawyer 7 . Wait for 
me at Barnum's, the barber. Shakespeare lived in Queen Elizabeth's 
reign. The Misses Lewis are amiable young ladies. Messrs. 7 Lucas 1 and 
Simonds 1 are bankers in St. Louis. Ah ! Warwick, Warwick, wert thou 
as we are. The Spanish general presented the young prince to them as 
their future sovereign 7 , and as the true heir to the Peruvian sceptre. My 
wife, the sweet soother of my cares, fell a victim 7 to despair. The inferior 
animals are divided into five classes ; quadrupeds 7 , fowls, fishes, reptiles, 
and insects. Officer, soldier, friend, and foe, were alls' shoveled into a 
common grave. It was I, your friend, that h became his protector. He 
led the troops himself. She is modest and virtuous ; [and modesty and 
virtue are] qualities ever to be esteemed. 

12. 

And all our knowledge is ourselves 4 to know 7 . '• To be good is to be 
happy," is a truth 7 never to be forgotten by those commencing the jour- 
ney of life. Far other scene was ThrasemenS now. This life is the spring- 
time of eternity, — the time to sow 1 ' 2 the seeds of woe or the seeds of bliss. 
She walks [has become] a queen. Queen 7 of flowers the fair lily blooms. 
Now, what 7 is your text ? I see you what 7 you are. Whom do you take 
him to be ? He made us wiser 10 — made us walk 1 ' 2 — made us scholars 7 . 
An elm, says the poet Holmes, is a forest waving on a single tree. Such a 
one 4 as 7 I was, this picture presents. Death is the wages of sin. That 
Louis XIV was crafty, does not make him a great ruler. 

See the blind beggar 4 dance 1 * 2 , the cripple sing, 

The sot 4 a hero 7 , lunatic a king. — Pope. 

13. 

Friends' 2 , 'Romans 2 , countrymen* 2 ! lend me your ears. — Shakespeare. 
Young ladies, put not your trust in money, but put your money in 
trust — 0. W. Holmes. 

His praise, ye j winds k , that from four quarters blow, 
Breathe soft or loud ; and wave your tops, ye pines. — Milton. 
My friends, do they now and then send 
A wish or a thought after me. — Cowper. 
To arms! they come! the Greek 1 ! the Greek ! — Hallech. 
" Come back! come back !" he cried in grief, 
M Across this stormy water ; 
And I'll forgive your Highland chief, — 

My daughter! oh, my daughter!" — Campbell. 

6 



122 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 

14. 

The sun having risen, we began our journey. 
Bonaparte being banished, peace was restored to Europe. 
Forth he walked, the Spirit' 2 leading and his deep thoughts 2 . 
He 2 being a boy 7 , the Indians spared him. He 1 , being a boy 7 , was not 
killed. 

Her wheel at rest, the matron thrills no more 
With treasured tales, and legendary lore. — Rogers. 
s To be a great historian, is easier than to be a great poet. 
His being a foreigner, should not induce us to underrate him. 

15. 
The sailors, in wandering over the island, found several trees bearing 
delicious fruit 4 . I forgot to tell 4 [to] him the story. Boys like to play 4 . 
I was about to express 5 my opinion, when he spoke to suggest 12 to me to 
remain 4 silent. I can not permit him 4 to go 12 . He taught us 4 arithmetic 4 , 
reading 4 , and writing 4 . He taught us to cipher, to read, and to write. 
He was taught to walk 12 on the rope. The horse I bought, is five years 
old. We were taught arithmetic, reading, and writing. The profit is 
hardly worth 10 the trouble 6 . The Atlantic Ocean is three thousand miles 
wide. 

(a.) "JDoomisV 1 limits the meaning, not of "Geometry," "but of " Legendrd s Geometry" 
(b.) "Hers" = her heart, (c.) "As" is the object of have, understood: when the governing 
word is expressed, " as" should be that, (d.) "Such" = such persons, (e.) " What he was" 
is a substantive clause, of the neuter gender, third person, singular number, and in the ob- 
jective case — being the object of the preposition "of" — according to Rule V. Now parse each 
word as before. (/.) After "what" supply I think, or something equivalent, (g.) "All," 
as here used, is usually parsed as a pronoun; but it may perhaps be as well considered an 
adjective. (Ji.) "That" properly refers to "It" as its antecedent, (i.) Not Rule VII, for each 
subsequent term is meant to be more comprehensive. (J.) Rule VII may be applied to either 
word ; but some grammarians think, better to ye, as being the strengthening word, (k.) A 
noun is never the subject of an imperative verb ; and a pronoun is the subject, only when it 
comes immediately after the verb and is joined to it. (I.) Rule VII is sometimes not inap- 
plicable, and may be preferred. 



Examples to be Corrected. 

All the liabilities to error in regard to nouns and pronouns, may be reduced 
to the following heads : — 

I. 1. Usurpation by the adverb. 2. Genders. 3. Persons. 4. Num- 
bers. 5. Nominative case. 6. Possessive case. 7. Objective case. 
8. Same case. 9. Position in regard to case. 

II. 1. Choice of pronouns. 2. Agreement of pronouns with 
antecedents, in gender, person, and number. 3. Position of pro- 
noun in regard to antecedent. 4. Pronoun inadequate to represent 
antecedent. 5. Inelegant insertion of pronoun. 6. Inelegant omis- 
sion of pronoun. 7. Relative pronoun improperly used in its con- 
junctive capacity only. 

Nouns and Prouoiiii§. 

1. Usurpation by the Adverb. 

We should avoid the inelegant use of adverbs in the place of nouns or 
pronouns. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 123 

A diphthong is where two vowels are united in one sound. — the union 
of — A diphthong is when two vowels are united in one sound. Fusion is 
while a solid is converted into a liquid by heat. When a letter or a syllable is 
transposed, it is called Metathesis. The transposition of a letter, &c. Personi- 
fication is when we- ascribe life, sentiments, or actions, to inanimate beings, or 
to abstract qualities. — is a figure by which — A deed of trust is a deed where 
the lender has power to sell to secure himself. — is a deed giving — Man- 
slaughter is where a man is killed without malice or previous ill-will. He drew 
up a petition where he too freely represented his own merits. The occasions 
where a man has the right to take the law into his own hands, are but few. 
The manner how it was done, I never could ascertain. The plural of these 
nouns is formed as in the languages whence they are derived. 

2. Genders. 

Substantives should be properly used in gender, according to the sex, 
the general nature of the object, or the particular view of the author. 

a. Unworthy objects should not be personified as male or female. 

b. Care should be taken to ascribe to a personified object the most ap- 
propriate sex. 

She is administrator. The marquess was celebrated for her wit and beauty. 
He was married to a most beautiful Jew. She was the tallest woman I ever 
saw : she was really a giant. Mrs. Lydia Smith, the editor, lately turned actor, 
at Memphis. She is considered the best bakeress in the establishment. She 
is not so great a prophet as to scare me into belief. (Is a governess the wife 
of a governor, or is she a woman that governs ?) The tiger broke from its 
cage. A weasel put his head out from an old stone wall. How can a calf 
distinguish his mother's lowing from that of a thousand other cows ? How 
timidly the rabbit looks out from his bushy covert, and how briskly the squirrel 
chatters on the limb near her nest in a hole of some tall tree. The sun, in its 
bright career round the world, does not look down upon a lovelier or livelier 
land ; nor does the moon throw, anywhere else, its silver mantle more softly or 
beautifully upon the slumbering world below. Alas! we know only that the 
ship sailed from England, but that to England it never returned again. They 
who seek wisdom, will certainly find her. (Not personified.) His form had 
not yet lost all her original brightness. — Milton. Her form extends o'er all 
things that have breath ; a cruel tyrant, and her name is Death. — Sheffield. 
While Spring shall pour his showers. — Collins. 

3. Persons. 

Politeness usually requires that the speaker shall mention the addressed 
person first, and himself last. 

I, Mary, and you, are to go next Sunday. If James and you take the 
horses, I and Martha will have nothing to ride. Mother said that I and you 
must stay at home. We and they studied Latin together. When he and you 
are married, I will come to see you. This law, fellow-citizens, bears hard upon 
me, upon you, and upon every other laboring man. (Proper or not proper, de- 
pending on the sense.) 

4. Numbers. 

Nouns and pronouns should be correctly used in number, according to 
the sense, and the proper form of the word. 

The room is eighteen foot long, and sixteen foot wide. I measured the log 
with a pole ten foot long — with a ten-feet pole. The lot has 25 foot front, and 



124 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.— EXERCISES. 

is 8 rod deep. The teamster hauled four cord of wood, and three ton of hay, 
in nine hour. St. Louis is seven mile long and two mile wide. Five quintil- 
lion, six quadrillion, seven trillion, eight billion, nine million, two thousand, throe 
hundred and forty-five. Five billions six millions twenty -five thousands two 
hundred and three. For this dog he paid five pound and ten shilling. She 
gathered a few handful of flowers. The corpse of the Mexicans were left to the 
wolf and the vulture. The work embraces every minutiae — all the minutia of 
the science. If six apples cost three pence, two apples will cost one pence. 
The prairie-hens were sold by score and dozen. I bought two pairs of socks. 
The Swede are a patriotic people, as well as the Swiss. The whole fleet con- 
sists of twelve sail. — ships. Of his oxens, he had just sold six or seven 
heads. He used his influence as a mean for destroying the party. In the 
early settlement of Missouri, beaver and water-fowl were abundant about the 
rivers and creeks. He never took two shot at a deer. A bag of shots will last 
us a year. 

We now came to a region where buffalo, turkeys, elk, and bear, were to be 
found. Several chimnies were blown down by the last storm. The vermins 
were so numerous that we could raise no fowl. As we emerged from the 
woods, we saw three deers standing on a small eminence in the prairie. . These 
are desideratas not found every day. I will take no more of his nostra, be the 
consequences what they may. Of these plants, there are several genuses. 
The garden of Eden contained all kind of fruit. The heathen are those people 
who worship idols. He is a chemist, and has many apparatuses in his office. 
— much apparatus — or, many kinds of apparatus — The Mussulmen are Ma- 
hometans, but the Germans are not. The ay 's and nay's were then taken. 
How many 6s in nine 8s? Your zs and ys are not well shaped. (Write out 
in words T 7 r and j 9 ^.) No familys stand higher than the Winthrop's, Web- 
ster's, and Everett's, of New England. The fowls were sold at nine pennies a 
piece. Byron was one of the greatest poetic genii that ever lived. The sheafs 
were carried away by thiefs. The cargos consisted chiefly of calicos, mangos, 
and potatos. Two folioes. The angelic Peri's. . Two of his aid-de-camps 
were killed. His brother-in-laws were educated at the same university. The 
deserters were tried by court-martials. 

The Doctors Stevensons and the Misses Arnolds seem to be on very good 
terms. The two Misses Cheevers, the Misses Boltons, the Messrs. Hays, and 
the Mrs. Talbots, were all at the party. The second, third, and fifth story, 
were filled with goods. The Old and the New Testaments — the Old and New 
Testament, in one large volume, called the Bible. You may learn the ninth 
and tenth page — the ninth and the tenth pages, and review the first or second 
pages. The English, French, and German nation — the English, the French, 
and the German nations, are the most enlightened. Nouns have the nomina- 
tive, the possessive, and the objective cases ; the singular and the plural num- 
bers ; the masculine, feminine, common, and neuter gender ; and the first, sec- 
ond, and third person. Bushnell's, Halsall's, and Woodward's stores occupy the 
next three buildings. BushnelVs store, HalsalVs, &c. Ho and I were neither 
of us any great talkers. The sermon produced a deep impression on the hearts 
of every hearer. We shall give but a short Preface. (There was but one 
author.) It was for our sakes that Jesus died upon the cross. Yery few per- 
sons are contented with their lots. They were trained together in their child- 
hoods. The members will regard their reputations, and not demand exorbitant 
wages. It is not worth our whiles, to study stenography. — our time — Let 
us drive on, and get our suppers at the next house. The directors did little on 
their parts, to relieve the bank. We shall advocate these measures, not in the 
names of our constituents, but on our own responsibilities. All these trees 
send their tap-roots deep into the ground. — the tap-root — 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 125 

5. Nominative Case. 

A noun or a pronoun must be in the nominative case, — 

1. When it is the subject of a finite verb. 

2. When it is used absolutely or independently. 

a. The object of the active verb, and not of the preposition, should be 
made the subject of the passive verb. 

7. Objective Case. 

A noun or a pronoun must be in the objective case, — 

1. When it is the object of a verb. * 

2. When it is the object of a preposition. 

8. Same Case. 

A noun or a pronoun used to explain or identify another, must be 
in the same case. 

Him and me went to the same church. Them that seek wisdom, will find 
it. You and him are of the same age. Gentle reader, let you and I, in like 
manner, walk in the paths of virtue. Them are not worth having. Let there 
be none but thee and I. The whole need not a physician, but them that are 
sick. He can not write as well as me. I sorrowed as them that have no 
hope. He is taller than me, but I am as tall as her. I do not think such 
persons as him competent to judge. You did fully as well as me. It is not 
fit for such a3 us to sit with the rulers of the land. You can find no better 
man than him. We are as good arithmeticians as them, but they are better 
grammarians than us. Few persons would do as much for him as he and me 
have done. This is a small matter between you and I. All, save I, were at 
rest and enjoyment. There was no one in the room except she. Her price 
is paid, and she is sold like thou. The Lee's were distinguished officers in the 
Revolution. Such a man, in the sight of augels, is more illustrious than all the 
Alexander's, Caesar's, and Bonaparte's, that ever lived. He and they we know, 
but who art thou ? Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. Let each 
one help hisselfl He said so hisself. 

If people will put theirselves into danger, they should be willing to bear the 
consequences. She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. Ye only 
have I known. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend I Who 
did she marry? Tell me, in sadness, whom is she you love? — Shakespeare. 
To poor we, thine enmity is most capital. — Shakespeare's Goriolanus. Him I 
accuse, has entered. Who spilt this ink ? — Not me ; it wasn't me. Who 
can work this sum ? — Me. Who rode in the buggy ? — Him and her. Who 
broke this pitcher? — Not her; it was me. Who is that boy speaking to? 
To whom, &c. Who did you send for? Who did you buy it of? They who 
much is giveu to, will have much to answer for. He who committed the of- 
fense, thou shouldst correct ; not I, who am innocent. Who shall we send ? — 
Whomsoever will go. Whom do you think stands head in our class ? That 
is the boy whom we think deserves the prize. I should like to assist . a young 
man who I think to be so worthy of assistance. Can not a gentleman take 
into his buggy to ride with him, whosoever he pleases? Never tie yourself to 
any one, before knowing whom the person is you are choosing. But, first, 
I must show who I mean by the administration. — Benton. He offered his 
daughter in marriage to whomsoever might subdue the place. — Irving. This 
excited the curiosity of the Recorder as to whom the consequential darkey might 
be. — Mo. Republican. Let the people elect whom they think is best qualified 
to lead them-~whoinsoever is best qualified to lead them — whosoever they 



126 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 

know to be best qualified to lead them. He supported those whom he thought 
were of Ms party — who he thought true to his party. He attacked the enemy , 
whom he saw were crossing the river — who he saw crossing the river. 



I was offered a seat. He was offered the control of the entire school. He 
was left a large estate by his uncle. We were shown a sweet-potato that 
weighed 25 pounds. I was shown into the parlor. (Allowable.) Let him 
be shown the method we have adopted. I have been promised a better situa- 
tion in the South. You were paid a high compliment by the young lady. 
Pupils expelled from other colleges, will not be allowed admittance here. By 
such a course of proceeding, I am refused that protection which every citizen 
has a right to expect. We were allowed the use of a large pasture near the 
mansion. These documents were had recourse to in the course of the debate. 



Him losing the way, we were obliged to remain in the woods till morning. 
Me being absent, the young folks lived high. Their refusing to comply, I with- 
drew. Oh! happy us, surrounded by so many blessings. And me, what 
shall I do ? Him who had led them to battle being killed, they immediately 
retreated. The whole family believed in spiritual rappings, us excepted. Her 
being the only daughter, no expense had been spared in her education. Whose 
gray top shall tremble, Him descending. The bleating sheep with my com- 
plaints agree ; them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee. I mean 
Noah Webster, he who wrote the dictionary. The man has just arrived, him 
whom we expected yesterday. Believing the man to be a doctor, or he who had 
cured the others, we applied to him for assistance. We will go at once, — him 
and me. And do you thus speak to me, I who have so often befriended you ? 
These are the volunteers from Texas, them who fought so bravely in Mexico. 

Christ, and him crucified, is the corner-stone of our Faith. Let the pupils 
be divided into several classes ; especially they who read, they who study gram- 
mar, and they who study arithmetic. — especially those — I dread this man, 
being he that has so often injured me. — because he is the one who — To John 
and James, they who had misspent their time at school, their father left nothing. 
(Omit they.) Whom being dead, there was no one to check him in his wild 
career. I would say so, were it ho or any other person whomsoever. — what- 
soever. 

It was not me ; it was them or her. Is it me you mean ? Was it him, or 
me, that you called ? If I were him, I would send for the doctor. If it were 
me, I would act differently. 'Twas thee I sought. I knew it was him — it 
to be he. But whom say ye that I am ? It is him whom you said it was 
Who did you take us to be ? She is the person who I understood it to have 
been. — that I — He is a man who I am far from considering happy. I 
would not be the man whom he now is. It was not me, that said so. I care 
not, let him be whom he may. No matter where the vanquished be, nor 
whom. What you saw was but a picture of him, and not him. It was not 
us, that made the noise. I knew it to be they. It is them and their poster- 
ity who are to be the sufferers. He did not prove to be the man whom 
he was recommended to be. Its being me should make no difference in 
your determination. (Better : That it is I, &c.) There was no doubt of its 
being him. 

6. Possessive Case. 

1. The relation of possession or property should be expressed in the 
most appropriate manner, according to custom and euphony. 

2. The possessive sign should be used but once, to express one pos- 
session, whatever nunib.'t* of wordi denote the possessor. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 127 

His misfortunes awaken nobody's pity, though no ones ability ever went 
farther for others good. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures 
gifts for mans advantage. John Norton his book. We used Pierce' Trigo- 
nometry, Loomis' Geometry, and Wells' Grammar. How do you like Doug- 
las' bill ? Achaia's sons at Ilium slain for the Atridse' sake. Your's, our's, 
her's, their's, who's, hisself, theirselves, yourn, hern, ourn, his'n. Adams' Ad- 
ministration. Essex death haunted the conscience of Queen Elizabeth. Five 
year's interest remained unpaid. Three days time was given to the debtors. 
Six months wages will then be due. I will not destroy the city for ten sake. 
Rubens' pictures. Horace' satires — Horace's satires=. (Find a different 
but equivalent expression.) Terence' plays — Terence's pla3^s==. Socrates's 
death=. Demosthenes' orations — Demosthenes's orations. Hortensius' 
wonderful memory. For Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife. The Gov- 
ernor of Missouri's message. Marcy's letter, the Secretary of War, is a mas- 
terly reply =. John's brother's wife's sister married a mechanic=. Was it 
your book, or somebody else's ? The wife of the captain of the Tropic=. (Al- 
lowable.) 

The Commons' House represents the yeomanry ; and the Lords', the nobil- 
ity. Sunday is also called the day of the Lord. God's love=. The world's 
government is not left to chance. The extent of the prerogative of the king 
of England. A list of some of the books of each of the classes of literature 
will be given. — irk each, Daniel Boone of Kentucky's adventures. Edward 
the Second of England's queen. He is Clay the great orator's youngest son. 
Geo. McDuffie was nominated by John Calhoun the Senator's request. These 
works are Cicero's, the most eloquent of men's. The opinionative man thinks 
his opinions better than any one's else opinions — any one else's opinions. 
This picture of your mother's is a very good likeness. This last work of Long- 
fellow will add little to his reputation. Jack's the Giant-killer's wonderful ex- 
ploits. We deposited our money at Wiggins's, the banker's and commission 
merchant's. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great ca- 
lamities. Linton's, Pope's, and Company's library is large=. Allen's, Thom- 
son's, and Hardcastle's store is opposite to ours. Allen, Thomson, and Hard- 
castle's stores, are not joint possessions. Albert's and Samuel's heads are shaped 
like teapots. Peter's and Andrew's occupation was that of fisherman. 

Morrison's and Fletcher's farms are the next two on the road. Morrison's 
farm and Fletcher's are, &c. Morrison and Fletcher's farm will be occupied 
by the respective owners. I have no time to listen to either John or Joseph's 
lesson. It was necessary to have both the surgeon and the physician's advice. 
Neither the lawyer nor the doctor's aid was ever needed in this happy valley. 
Louis the Fourteenth and Bonaparte's reign are distinguished periods in the his- 
tory of France. He disobeyed his father as well as his mother's advice. 
Brown, Smith, and Jones' wife, usually went shopping together. The bill had 
the cashier, but not the president's, signature. Whose dictionary do you pre- 
fer, — Johnson, Webster, or Worcester ? The horse got away in consequence 
of me neglecting to fasten the gate. — my neglecting — or, because I had ne- 
glected — ■ He was averse to the nation involving itself in war. There is some 
talk of us getting into a war. Much depends on the pupil composing frequently. 
— on how frequently — He being a rich man, did not make him a happy man. 
Tliat he was a rich, &c. The time for us beginning to plough, is at hand. The 
time for us to begin, &c. The time for him making the speech, had nearly 
passed away. What is the reason of you not having gone to school ? — that 
you have not gone — There is nothing to prevent him going — his going — 
your going. — him from going ; or, — you from going. Such will ever be the 
consequences of youth associating with vicious companions. — when young per- 
sons associate — From him having always assisted me, I again applied to him 
for help. Because he — or. Inasmuch as he, &c. The situation enabled him to 



128 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 

earn something, without him losing too much time from his studies. — without 
losing — 

9. Position in regard to Case* 

Nouns and pronouns should be so construed with other words, as 
not to leave the case uncertain or ambiguous. 

The settler here the savage slew. (Which slew the other?) I do not love 
him better than you. And thus the son the fervent sire addressed. And all the 
air a solemn stillness holds. Our hunters caught the orang-outangs themselves. 
He suffered himself to betray his friend. Poetry has a measure as well as 
music. Forrest plays these pieces better than all others. She acted her part 
better than any other one. I would rather give her to thee than another. 



Pronouns. 

1. Choice of Pronouns, 

In the use of pronouns, great care should be taken to select the most 
appropriate. 

a. In the selection of pronouns, we are governed jpy the sense, rather 
than by the nouns which they are to represent. 

b. It is inelegant to use pronouns of different kinds for the same object, 
and in the same connection, when we naturally expect uniformity. 

I gave all what I had. I sent every thing what you ordered. I am the 
boy what is not afraid to go. There is the same man whom we saw a while 
ago. There is the same wagon of apples which was at the market. In her 
looks, she is the same as she always was. The same objects which pleased the 
boy, will not always please the man. The objects which, &c. We prepared us 
to die. — ourselves — Give that which you can spare to the poor. — what 
you — We speak that we do know. I am that I am. I am happy in the 
friend which I have long proved. Those which are rich, should assist the poor 
and helpless. The heroic souls which defended the Alamo. She was a con- 
spicuous flower, which he had sensibility to love, ambition to attempt, and skill 
to win. My dogs now came upon the tracks of the lion, who had caught 
and eaten the man during the night. So I gave the reins to my horse, who 
knew the way much better than I knew it. Who of those ladies do you 
like best? 

Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old Testament. Hu- 
mility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can possess. He was the 
first man who came. This is the most fertile part of the State which we have 
as yet seen. Marcy was perhaps the ablest secretary who ever was in this de- 
partment. He sold his best horse, which had been given to him. (Proper ; 
the relative clause not being restrictive.) Who who has the feelings of a man, 
would submit to such treatment ? Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of 
light green ? ' By this speculation he lost all which he had promised to his 
daughter. All who ever knew him, spoke well of him. A most ungrateful 
return for all which I have done for him. Of all the congregations whom I 
ever saw, this was certainly the largest. The very night as suits a melancholy 
temperament. He was devoured by the very dogs which he had reared. They 
are such persons that I do not like to associate with. These are the same sums 
as wo had before. Ho is like a beast of prey who destroys without pity. In 
a street in Cincinnati is a parrot who has been taught to repeat a line of a song 
which many of you have heard. The monkey which had been appointed ad 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 129 

the orator on the occasion, then addressed the assembly. There was a little 
dop: whose name was Fido. and who was very fond of his master. — dog named 
Fido, thai — Yarico soon became a general favorite, who never failed to re- 
ceive the crumbs from the breakfast-table. The little ant, which had a plenti- 
ful store, thus spoke to the little cricket : " We ants never borrow, we ants 
never lend." 

With the return of spring came four martins, who were evidently the same 
which had been bred under those eaves the previous year. The witnesses and 
documents which we wanted, have been obtained. The passengers and steamer 
which we saw yesterday, are now buried in the ocean. Was it the wind, or 
you, w r ho shut the door ? The land on the east side of the river, was claimed 
by the chiefs and tribes who inhabited the land on the ot^er side. Even the 
corpses who were found, could not be recognized. The character whom he 
represented, was by much the best in the play. This lubberly boy we usually 
call Falstaff, who is but another name for fat and fun. It is I, who will go with 

you. That man is wisest keeps his own secrets. It is this alone, which 

has induced me to accept the office. Was it you, or he, who made so much 
noise ? Is it I, or he, whom you want to see ? It was the frankness and 
nobleness of his disposition, which I admired. Would any man who cares for 
himself, accept such a situation ? Let us not mingle in every dissipation, nor 
enjoy every excitement, which we can. 

lie is a man who is very wealthy. — that is — or, Re is a very wealthy man. 
She is a woman who is never contented. The misfortunes of a man who would 
not listen to his wife. I hate persons who never do a generous action. Nouns 
of the common gender denote objects which are males or females. People who 
are always denouncing others, are often no better themselves. Principles 
which have been long established, are not easily eradicated. The tribes whom 
we have described, inhabited the Mississippi Valley. The nations who have 
good governments, are happy. I joined a large crowd who was moving to- 
wards the capitol. He was a member of the legislature who passed this bill. 
He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. The committee which 
was appointed to examine the students, was hardly competent to do so. Wilt 
thou help me drive these horses to the pasture? Will you, &c. Do you be 
careful that all thy actions be honest and honorable. Do thou— or, that all your 
actions — Thou shouldst never forsake the friend who has ever been faithful 
to you. Ere you remark another's fault, bid thy own conscience look within. 
You have mine, but I have thine. Thou, who hast preserved us, and that 
wilt continue to preserve us. There is the same boat that came last evening, 
and which will go away again this morning. 

The poor man who can read, and that possesses a taste for reading, can find 
entertainment at home. The man who came with us, and that is dressed in 
black, is the preacher. Is it possible that he should know what he is, and be 
that he is ? But what we saw last, and which pleased us most, was the char- 
acter of the old miser in the farce. It is such a method as has never been 
thought of before, and which, we believe, will be generally adopted. They are 
such apples as ours, or which you bought. — or such as you — Policy keeps 
coining truth in her mints — such truth as it can tolerate ; and every die except 
its own, she breaks, and casts away. Learning has its infancy, when it is luxu- 
riant and juvenile ; and lastly his old age, when it waxeth dry and exhaust. — ■ 
Bacon. Is reputable, national, and present use, which, for brevity's sake, I shall 
simply denominate good use, always uniform in her decisions? One does not 
like to have one's self disparaged by those who know one not. A person, . . 
himself .... know him not. 



130 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 

2. Agreement of Pronouns with Antecedents, 

Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, in gender, person, and 
number. 

a. When the pronoun can not strictly or fully represent its antecedent 
in gender, it prefers the masculine. 

&. The person and number of the antecedent to a pronoun, are al- 
ways what they would be if the antecedent were the subject/ of a 
finite verb. 

Every person should try to improve their mind and heart. Each of our 
party carried a knapsack with them, for their private convenience. Not one 
of the boys should come without their books. Many a man looks back on the 
days of their youth, with melancholy regret. A person who is resolute, ener- 
getic, and watchful, will be apt to succeed in their undertakings. An orator's 
tongue should be agreeable to the ears of their hearers. T do not think any 
one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation. If we deprive 
an animal of instinct, he will no longer be able to take care of himself. When 
a bird is caught in a trap, they of course try to get out. Scarcely any person 
is so stupid as not to know when they are made sport of. If any member of the 
congregation wishes to connect themselves with [to] this church, they will please 
[to] come forward, while the brethren sing. Take up the ashes, and put it into 
the large tub behind the kitchen. If you have any victuals left, we will help 
you to eat it. His pulse did not beat so fast as they should beat. Grains of 
sand they might be, those hoarded moments, but it was golden sand. I like 
those molasses, for they are almost as good as honey. 

I have sowed all my oats, and it is growing finely. Our language is not 
less refined than those of Italy, France, or Spain. There lay the paraphernalia 
of her toilet, just as she had left it. The simise can stand erect on its hind feet 
Where the early blue-bird sung its lay. (The male among birds, and not the 
female, usually sings.) The heron built its nest among the reeds. The pea- 
cock is fond of displaying its gorgeous plumage. The hen looked very discon- 
solate, when it saw its whole brood rush into the pond. The Earth is my 
mother, and I will recline upon its bosom. John studies; — John denotes 
the agent or doer, and he is therefore in the nominative case. Horses is of the 
plural number, because they denote more than one. To persecute a truly ■ 
religious denomination, will only make them flourish the better. The people 
can not be long deceived by its demagogues and selfish politicians. The mob 
soon dispersed, after their leaders were captured. Egypt was glad at their de- 
parture, for they were afraid of them. The first object of the multitude was, to 
organize itself into a body. The Society will hold their meetings in the highest 
room of the building. Each tribe is governed by a chief whom they have 
chosen. (Perhaps allowable.) 

The government will have cause to change their orders. The cabinet 
seemed to be divided in its sentiments. The cabinet was distinguished for their 
wise and vigorous measures. The corps of teachers should have its duties 
properly distributed and arranged. The board of directors, for its own emol- 
ument, located the road through this part of the country. The board of 
directors should have their powers defined and limited by a charter. The 
regiment was much reduced in their number. The court, in their wisdom, de- 
cided otherwise. Send the multitude away, that it may go and buy itself 
food. The army, being abandoned by its chief, pursued meanwhile their mi- 
serable march. (Let the construction be either singular though out, or plural 
throughout, but not both.) The party, though disgraced by the selfishness and 
corruption of its leaders, made nevertheless a vigorous and successful struggle to 
regain their former ascendency. The Almighty cut off the family of Eli the 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 131 

high priest, for its transgressions. The twins resemble one another so much as 
to be scarcely distinguishable. People should be kind to each other. 

Neither of us is willing to give up oar claim. (Say, "his claim" if not pos- 
sessed in common; u our claim" if denoting common possession.) He and I 
love their parents. If none of you will bring your horses to the camp, I will 
let mine stay too. I did not notice which of the men finished their work first. 
The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster, the less weight it carries. 
— he runs — or, race-horse : it runs, &c. John, thou, and I, are attached to 
their country. You and your playmates must learn their lessons. Two or 
three of us have lost our hats. The sister, as well as the brother, should per- 
form then share of the household duties. The industrious boy, and the indo- 
lent one too, shall find their proper reward. Every soldier and every officer 
remained awake at their station during the night. Every herb, every flower, 
and every animal, shows the wisdom of Him who made them. Let every gov- 
ernor and legislature do as it thinks best. Every half a dozen boys should 
have its own bench. If any boy or girl be absent, they will have to go to the 

foot of the class. I borrow one peck, or eight quarts, and add to the 

upper term. Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. No 
man or woman ever got rid of their vices, without a struggle. One or the 
other must relinquish their claim. John or James will favor us with their 
company. 

Neither the father nor the son had ever been distinguished for their business 
qualifications. A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well 
as read them in a description. Poverty and wealth have each their own temp- 
tations. No thought, no word, no action, whether they be good or evil, can 
escape the notice of G-od. Both minister and magistrate are sometimes com- 
pelled to choose between his duty and his reputation. Coffee and sugar are 
imported from the Indies ; and great quantities of it are consumed annually. 
Avoid self-conceit and insolence: it will never increase your wealth or your 
happiness. If you should see my horse or mule, I wish you would have them 
turned into your pasture. If any gentleman or lady wish [wishes] to have 
their fortune told, they now have an opportunity. — his or her . ... he or she 
now has — I do not see why I or any other man should not have a [the] right, 
to express our — his— my opinions of public affairs. (Avoid the use of the pro- 
noun altogether; say, "the opinion which either of us may ,'' &c.) My horse is a 
little darker than yours ; but, in every other respect, they are exactly alike. 
— he is exactly like him ; or, — your horse . ... he ... . yours. My horse 
is a little darker than yours ; but, in every other respect, they are a perfect match. 
(Allowable. Parse they.) Notice is hereby given to every person to pay their 
taxes. (Change the antecedent; say, u to all persons 11 , &c.) Our teacher does not 
let any one of us do as they please. If any person thinks it is easy to write books, 
let them try it. Neither the negro boy nor the coach was ever restored to his 
owner. — to the owner ; or, Both the negro .... were never .... their owner. 
Every person and thing had its proper place assigned to it. — the proper — 

3. Position of Pronoun in regard to Antecedent. 

4. Inadequacy of Pronoun to represent Antecedent. 

A pronoun should not be so used as to leave it obscure or doubtful 
what antecedent it represents. 

It is generally inelegant to make a pronoun needlessly represent an 
adjective, a phrase, or a sentence. 

The king dismissed his minister, without any inquiry, who had never before 
done so unjust an action. He should not marry a woman in high life, that has 
no money. Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound 



132 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 

to be elevated, a pause will be proper. A man has no right to judge another, 
who is a party concerned. I am the jailor who have come to take you. The 
jailor am I, who will guard you safely. Lysias promised his father, that he 
would never forsake his friends. Thou art a friend indeed, who hast often re- 
lieved me. We admire the beauty of the rainbow, and are led to consider 
the cause of it. John told James that his horse had run away. The lord 
can not refuse to admit the heir of his tenant upon his death ; nor can he remove 
his present tenant so long as he lives. 

The law is inoperative, which is not right. • — and that it is so, is not rigttt. 
Some men are too ignorant to be humble, without which there can be no docil- 
ity. — and without humility — An old man, bent with years, was languidly 
digging, or attempting it. — to dig. A bird is that which has feathers. — an 
animal that — Every seat is to be occupied by the one before it. — by the 
person — A compound sentence is one composed of two or more others. — is 
a sentence — This rule is not strictly true, and a few examples will show it. 
— as a few examples will show. When a man kills another from malice, it is 
called murder. — the deed is called murder. The servant took away the horse, 
which was unnecessary. The accent is laid upon the last syllable of a word, 
which is favorable to the melody. The man brought the whole package, which 
was more than we expected. The prisoners rebelled against the regulations of 
the establishment, of which we shall presently give an account. There is 
among all people a belief of immortality, arising from the natural desire of liv- 
ing, and strengthened by uniform tradition, which ha3 certainly some influence 
on practice. 

5. Inelegant Insertion of Pronoun, 

When a pronoun can add nothing to the sense, it should not be 
needlessly inserted to usurp the place of a better word. 

Henry Holmes his book. These lots, if they had been sold sooner, they 
would have brought more money. If these lots had been, &c. John he went, 
James he went, and Mary she went ; but the rest they all staid at home. Two 
nouns, when they come together, and signify the same thing, they must be put 
in the same case. The Latin and the Greek,, though they are much neglected, 
yet competent judges know that our language can hardly be perfectly under- 
stood without them. The river rising very rapidly, it overflowed its banks. 
These wild horses having been once captured, they were soon tamed. I would 
like to have it now, what I had then. (Omit " it") Whatsoever you learn 
perfectly, you will never forget it. It is not to the point, what he said. What- 
soever she found, she took it with her. Whoever thinks so, he judges errone- 
ously. Whom, when she had seen, she invited him to dinner. — seen him .... 
invited to dinner. It is indisputably true, his assertion, though it seems er- 
roneous. His assertion is, &c. It is marvelous what tricks jugglers sometimes 
play. — to observe what — Every thing whatsoever ho could spare, he gave 
away. (Omit " every thing") 

6. Inelegant Omission of Pronoun. 

1. The omission of the relative adjunct, or of the relative in the nomi- 
native case, is generally inelegant. 

2. Parts that are to be contrasted, emphatically distinguished, or 
kept distinct in thought, must usually be expressed with fullness. 

3. The omission of the nominative is inelegant, unless the verb is in 
the imperative mood, or in the same connection with another finite verb. 

He is not now in the condition he was. Yonder is the place I saw it. 
A few remarks as to the manner it should be done, must suffice. The money 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. EXERCISES. 133 

has not been used for the purpose it was appropriated. There is Miss Liddy, 
can dance a jig-, raise paste, write a good letter, keep an account, give a reason- 
able answer, and do as she is bid. He was a man had no influence. Whose 
own example strengthens all his laws, and is himself the great sublime he draws. 
Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind, and never, never be to heaven re- 
signed ? — and wilt thou never — There is not a man here, would not do the 
same thing. There is no man knows better how to make money. It was 
the man sat next to you. It was this .induced me to send for you. Who is 
there so base that would be a bondman ? — that he — The word depends on 
what precedes and follows. There are who can not bear to see their friends 
surpass them. If there are any have been omitted, they must say so. 

They were rich once, but are poor now. He is a man of corrupt principles, 
but has great talents. This is a style of dress to which I am partial ; but is not 
now fashionable. I approve your plan so far as relates to our friend. The 
arrangement is very good; at least, so far as relates to my convenience. If the 
privileges to which he was entitled, and had been so long enjoying, should now, 
&c. All the young trees which I planted last year, and were growing finely, 
have been destroyed by rabbits. Any of these prisoners knowing the facts of 
the case, and will give his testimony in full to the court, shall be pardoned by 
the State. Why do ye that which is not lawful to do on the Sabbath-days ? 
— which it is not — The show-bread, which is not lawful to eat but for the 
priests only. From these proceedings may be readily inferred, how such men 
become rich. (Perhaps allowable.) 

Neither my poverty nor ambition could induce me to accept such an office. 
— nor my — This part of California is the loveliest country in the world, 
whether we regard its climate or soil. He was related to some of the first 
families of the State, both by his father's and mother's side. G-od punishes the 
vices of parents in themselves or children. The future should excite not only 
our hopes, but fears too. Dr. Jones and wife occupy the front room. His 
own and father's farm were adjacent to each other. My inability to get em- 
ployment, and destitute condition, pressed heavily upon my feelings. My duty, 
my interest, and inclinations, all urge me to the undertaking. This is a posi- 
tion I condemn, and must be better established to gain the faith of any one. 
The mail came this morning, and will leave again this evening. (Allowable; 
also "leave" which begins to be generally used, as a less formal word, for depart.) 

Dear Sir, 

Have received your manuscript, but not had time to examine it ; will 
do so in a few days, and may have it published if good. Yours, &c. 

7. Pronoun Improperly Used as a Connective. 

A relative pronoun should never be used as a mere connective. 

These evils were caused by Catiline, who, if he had been punished, the re- 
public would not have been exposed to so great dangers. — the punishment of 
wliom would have prevented the republic from being exposed to dangers so great. 
There is no doubt but what he is mistaken. — that — There are few things 
so difficult but what they may be overcome by perseverance and zeaL — that 
they may not — There was no profit, though ever so small, in any thing, but 
what he took the pains to obtain it. He lived in the same house that we now 
live. — in which — The boat will leave at the same time that the cars do. — will 
leave with the cars. The passive verb will always be of the same mood, tense, 
person, and number, that the verb to be is, before it is incorporated with the par- 
ticiple. Sir Alexander arrived at Charleston, about the time that Governor 
Burrington reached Edenton. At the same time that men are giving their 
orders, God is also giving his. While men % &c. He has never preached, that 
I have heard of. I have never heard } &c. He has never gone to see her, that 
I know of. 



134 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

The Observations should always be read over carefully by the student, in connection 
with the preceding Exercises. 

1. Where may be used in place of which and a preposition, when place is the 
predominant idea. " The grave where [in which] our hero was buried." — Wolfe. 
" The ancient house where I was born." — 0. W. Ilolmes. But to say, " The battle 
where he was killed," would be less elegant than to say, " The battle in which he 
was killed." In poetry and in the familiar style, greater indulgence is generally 
allowed; and words of time or cause are sometimes used in connection with ad- 
verbs exactly corresponding in sense. Such compounds as hereof, thereof, whereof, 
therewith, wherewith, are not so common as they were formerly. 

2. Terms of masculine terminations, or terms that have been formed to denote 
males, and that are usually applied so, may occasionally be applied also to females, 
when there are no peculiar terms for these, or when we wish to include the females 
with the males, and do not speak of them especially in regard to sex. It would be 
correct to say, "She is a better farmer, and manager, and penman than her hus- 
band was." Also, "She is my accuser,' 1 '' although our language has the uncommon 
word accuser ess. " The poets of America" may include the poetesses. When I 
say, " She is the best poetess" I compare her with female poets only ; but when I 
say, " She is the best poet" I compare her with both male and female poets. To 
brute animals and even to spiritual beings we sometimes apply it or its, when we 
speak of them as things, or when the sex is unimportant or not obvious. " Every 
creature loves its like." Here neither his nor her would express the sense so welL 
u Lo ! there it [a ghost] comes !" — Shakespeare. 

There is a peculiar nature or disposition that belongs to each sex, and on the 
analogy of this we ascribe life and sex to abstract qualities or to inanimate objects, 
which, in reality, have no sex. Even it and its are sometimes used in slight per- 
sonifications, in a sense analogous to that which they have when applied to animals 
or other living objects. In accordance with the foregoing principles, we sometimes 
speak of a mannish woman as of a man, and of an effeminate man as of a woman ; 
and of a hare, for instance, in the feminine gender ; of a fox, in the mascu- 
line ; &c. 

The following examples may serve as further illustrations of the subject : 
" When War to Britain bent his iron car." "Peace rears her olive for industrious 
brows." " In the monarch Thought's dominions." "Remorse, that tortures with 
his scorpion lash." " Or if Virtue feeble were, Heaven itself would stoop to her." 
u Why peeps your coward sword half afraid from its sheath." " While vengeance 
in the lurid air lifts her red arm, exposed and bare." — Collins. This last sentence 
is allowable, as alluding to the Furies. 

In personifications, we are sometimes aided in ascribing the proper sex by re- 
ference to the gender of the corresponding terms in the Classic languages. But 
this is not always a safe rule. The principles mentioned above, should also be 
taken into consideration. The sex to be ascribed in personification, is sometimes 
a matter of great nicety, and must be determined from the peculiar glow or senti- 
mental color of the writer's conceptions. 

3. For a person to speak of himself before speaking of others, is much the same 
as if he should help himself first at table, and then wait upon others. Instances, 
however, may occur, in which it would be proper, or even polite, to mention him- 
self first ; as when the parties differ much in rank, or when the assertion implies 
something burdensome or not desirable. 

To address others and speak of them and ourselves in the third person, usu- 
ally implies greater reserve, courtesy, and politeness ; as in cards of invitation, 
and the like : but where no such reserve or courtesy can be meant, as in business 
letters between familiar acquaintances, the style of writing in the third person may 
rather tend to suggest contempt. 

Just here may as well be said a few words about titles. Sir, applied to 
strangers, and also when used after such words as yes, no, well, why, 0, &c, is 
rather respectful ; but' when it is applied to friends or familiars, it may seem to dis- 
own the friendship or familiarity, and to request the person to keep at a proper or 
respectful distance : it is apt to' be in the spirit of the young lady's remark to her 
long-wooing and finally rejected lover, " I Know nothing about you, sir." Mister, 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS. 135 

without the name, is rather contemptuous — it is similar to the contemptuous Sir ; 
with the name of a stranger, it is rather respectful. When it is omitted from a 
name, the expression may imply that a very ordinary fellow is meant — a fellow of 
little importance — of no high respectability — of rather low standing in society,— it 
is somewhat similar in spirit to the word Jack; or it may imply that the person is 
a very well-known, intimate, and familiar acquaintance or favorite, not only to the 
speaker, but to all present, — suggesting that great cordiality, and entire want of 
formality, which are peculiar to the family circle ; or else it may imply that the 
person is of general or universal fame. Dr. Johnson spoke very contemptuously 
of a certain man's taste, who had indexed his " Lives of the Poets" thus : " Mil- 
ton, Mr. John ; Shakespeare, Mr. William." It also indicates sometimes a better 
state of feelings, to address a person by the Christian name than by the surname. 
So, if I am on very intimate terms with Prof. Mitchel, for instance, I should rather 
prefer to call him, in familiar and private conversation, Mr. Mhtchel. To write 
one's name with Mr. before it, would be self-conceited and ridiculous, but to title 
oneself as in the following expressions, — " I have no card; please to tell Gov. Ed- 
wards that Mr. Eichardson — Mr. Phelps from Springfield — Capt. Mitchell — called 
to see him," would be more appropriate and polite than to give the name simply. 
See above. 

The same remarks apply, in general, to the titles Miss and Mrs. To mention a 
woman by her surname only, is apt to have a very contemptuous air : it usually 
presents her as an insignificant or masculine personage. At parties, balls, &c, we 
always say, " gentleman and lady" and we generally call the mistress of the house 
"the lady of the house;" but a family that should send out cards with " Mr. and 
Mrs. Morgan send their compliments," &c, would, I think, show better taste than 
if the words were, " Mr. Morgan and lady send," &c. 

Should we give to a married lady or to a widow her own Christian name, or 
that of her husband? I think the lady's name should be preferred, unless there 
is some special reason for usiug the husband's. The husband's Christiau name 
may sometimes be more definite, better known, or better suited to the end in view. 
When there are two or more Catharine Johnsons, they may be best distinguished 
by using their husbands' Christian names. Our merchants, I believe, nearly al- 
ways use the husband's Christian name, in directing parcels to married ladies ; not 
merely, I suppose, because the husband is better known, but also because the 
responsibility usually rests upon him. In England, it is more common, I am told, 
than in the United States, to use the husband's Christian name. 

Never, in addressing a person, put a title both before and after the name. 

4. It is not always necessary to make a noun plural, merely because it denotes 
something belonging to more than one, or that it may agree in number with the 
governing word. "God has given us our reasons for our own good." This sen- 
tence hardly expresses the intended meaning. Better: " God has given us Reason 
for our own good." Who would say, " It was for their goods that I did it," in 
stead of "It was for their good that I did it" ? To say, " Tnese plants have their 
flowers at the top," is ambiguous : it may mean that each plant has but one top 
with but one flower, or, that it has a plurality of either or of both. Better : 
" These plants have the flower at the top" or—" the flowers at the tops" or — " the 
floioers at the top" according to the sense. Language is not a perfect instrument ; 
at least, we can not always And expressions that are exact or satisfactory ; and 
therefore must content ourselves when we have the best expression the language 
affords. Writers generally aim to make substantives that must vary alike in num- 
ber, agree in this respect. Mr. Goold Brown writes, "Proper names, of every 
description, should always begin with capitals ;" i. e., each name with but one 
capital. Lord Jeffrey writes, " These same circumstances have also perverted our 
judgments with respect to their characters y" for we have different judgments, and 
they different characters. But, "Iambic lines may occasionally begin with tro- 
chees," may suggest that each line begins with two or more trochees ; therefore 
say, " Occasionally, an iambic line may begin with a trochee." 

Two nouns making one term, should never be both made plural, unless the idea 
of apposition is very prominent; as, "The lords proprietors," "Knights Tem- 
plars," (" Knights Templar" — Mitchell's History of Freemasonry,) "men-serv- 
ants, women-servants." We sometimes find such condensed plurals as these : 
" The governors of Virginia, South Carolina, and Missouri;" " The earls of Arun- 
del and Buckingham," i. e., the earl of Arundel and the etxrl of Buckingham. The 



136 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS. 

sense is obvious, ami honce the expressions are allowable ; but " Prescott's and 
Bancroft's Histories" is not necessarily equivalent to " Preseott's History and 
Bancroft's History," and is hardly allowable. " Frescott and Bancroft^ Histo- 
ries" is as good a phrase as " The Old and Now Testaments," and is perhaps 
allowable. 

In imitation of an idiom in the Classic languages, we sometimes prefer the 
plural to the singular, in order to give the expression the greatest comprehensive- 
ness possible, and henee greater force ; as, " He gained her ajr'ections," i. e., her 
whole heart. Sometimes there is also a variation in sense. " YVneii it was asked 
whether a wealthy lawyer had acquired his riches by his practice, there was a ter- 
rible satire in the answer: 4 Y"es, by his practices.'' " — (?. P. Marsh. 

The plural, in some, instances, guards us against ambiguity ; thus, " The out- 
pour'nrj oi' the heart," may suggest, either the act of pouring 'or the thing poured, 
out "outpourings" is apt to suggest u the thinos poured" and nothing else. 

Such expressions as tk A ten-foot pole," U A twenty-(V//7 piece," &C., are proper; 
but a hyphen should always be used to connect the parts. The noun, in such ex- 
pressions, being used as an adjective, loses the properties of a noun. If these sin- 
fulars should bo plural, then it would not seem unreasonable to require he to be 
im or them in the following example : u They brought ta-goata." 

The singular is usually preferred in forming compounds, but sometimes the 
plural; as, ' k A iratch-mixker (=-a maker of watches), a //om'-stc-aler;" but, " A 
.sj/es-man, a draucjhts-mxii, a savi ni/s -buiik." 

Since we say two-thirds, three-fourths, four-fiftlis, &o», it is more in accordance 
with analogy, and also best, to read such fractions as _ 5 rj J- ^ flee ticcn f y-firsts, 
seven thirty-seconds. (Unhyphened : so are large ordinals ; as, " One hundred and 
twenty-floe.") 

As to the mode of expressing certain numeral terms, especially if long and com- 
posite, there is not a little diversity of practice. " Five thousand seven hundred 
and two." — Paries. "Fifty-nine /nillions three hundred and ten." — Id. "Five 
■million:' — A'. R. Report. « Five millions." — lb. The sense of nouns and that of 
adjectives meet, in such terms, like the colors of the rainbow : it is almost impossi- 
ble to tell where one ends or the other begins. The form of the term must evi- 
dently depend on whether the number is conceived adjectirelyov substantively, that 
is, whether in reference to a noun, or abstractly. u Eighty thousand, two hundred 
and one. 1 ' — Bay. " Four hundreds, three tens, and live units." — Id, M Forty -two 
■millions two thousand and five." — G-reenleaf. "Tens of 'Thousands of Trillions." 
— Id. To decide the matter briefly, I would say, Let the words be singular in 
form, when the whole is conceived as one numeral, or has no intermediate com- 
mas or points ; but let them be plural in form, when the number is broken into 
narts, and the phrase has commas or points. "Five hundred and thirty-six mil- 
lion three hundred and forty-seven thousand nine hundred and seventy-two." — 
Robinson's Mithe/nities. " Forty-seven quadrillions, sixty-nine billions, four hun- 
dred and sixty-rive thousands/two hundred and seven" [unite], — Dairies. "The 
number of his subjects must have been about live million two hundred thousand." 
— Macaulay. "To enslave five millions of Englishmen." — Id. "The population 
of China in 17-43 was fifteen millions twenty-nine thousand eight hundred and fifty- 
five." — Wilson's Treatise on Punctuation. Custom, in the United States, perhaps 
prefers * from millions up, but not down ; especially in round numbers. " Tlio 
Uroton Aqueduct cost nine millions." " His house cost him five thousand." 

The plural of words that are spoken of merely as words, is sometimes written 
with the apostrophe ; as, " Your composition has too many and's, there fore's, and 
where tore's." But all such words are better expressed by pluralizing them regu- 
larly, and Italicizing them; as, " Your composition has too many anas, there/ores, 
and wherefores" Here tho meaning is sufficiently obvious. Y f et if the regular 
plural should render the word or its meaning liable to be mistaken, then I see no 
good reason for not using the apostrophe, or any other means, to avoid the diffi- 
culty. "The extract is full of bies." Full of what! Perhaps bys or by's would 
hive been more intelligible. "The poem is full of flies and cries," is perhaps not 
so obvious in sense as, " The poem is full of fly's and cry's." 

Words ending in i or o preceded by a consonant, if they are native, perfectly 
naturalized, or well known, always take es to express the plural; as, Wo, woes, 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS. 137 

hero, heroes ; alkali, alkalies : but if the words are foreign rather thau English, good 
writers have, in many instances, added 8 only, to form the plural ; as, Teocalli, 
teocalli8 ; mufti, muftis ; stiletto, stilettos. This mode of pluralizing has this ad- 
vantage : The won! not being generally known, by annexing simply *, the reader 
at once sees what the singular is. Yet I think the regular plural is always prefer- 
able, when there is no liability of mistaking the singular form, or when the word 
is so far naturalized as to have already found its way into our dictionaries. We 
Americans do not begrudge an e to mulattoes, yet clip musquitos ; but the English 
are more consistent, and treat mulattoes and " mosquitoes^ alike, not even regard- 
ing toes. 

5 & 7. As there is sometimes an ellipsis of the finite verb, it is necessary to 
bear in mind what verb is omitted, in order to determine readily what the case 
should be. " He is wiser than I" [am]. " She is as good as he" [is]. " Who will 
go ? I" [will go]. " Who was it ? Not I"=It was not I. 

6. The sense of the possessive case is usually expressed either by giving a cer- 
tain form to the word denoti ig the possessor, or bv using of and the objective case. 
These two forms should be interchanged in sucn a way as to relieve each other, 
and avoid the inadequacy and inelegance of either. I should always endeavor to 
use, in prose, '<* with singular possessive nouns, or else of. Though, " The defeat 
of Xerxes' 1 army was the downfall, of Persia,*' for instance, could hardly be im- 
proved. 

A noun or pronoun, before a participle, may be put in the possessive case, when 
the sense requires it, and a better expression can not be readily found. Such a 
phrase is sometimes a very convenient one, if not the most appropriate that can be 
used to convey the sense. Much depends on which word conveys the idea upper- 
most in the speaker's mind. " What do you think of my planting corn?" Is it 
proper ? You being a farmer as well as I, would you plant? " What do you 
think of ue planting corn V Am I not out of my proper line of business ? What 
sort of fanner do 1, or would I. make? "I well remember Peyton RaniolpVs in- 
forming me of the crossing or our messengers." — Jefferson. "Bat what gave it 
most interest, was its being in some way connected with the pirate ship." — Irving. 
"There is no doubt of my seeing him." But such uncouth possessives as, " One 
of them's fulling into a ditch was an accident" — Greenleaf's Grammar ; "A place's 
being at a distance" — lb.; "Instead of the mind's being made to go through with 

this tedious process" — lb., — should be avoided: say, " That one of them fell" ; 

" The distance of a place" ; " Instead of making the mind go through"-*—. 

Finally, the possessive sign should be used wherever there is a noun expressed 
or understood denoting the thiiw possessed ; and a phrase explanatory of tlie pos- 
sessor, should never be placed between the possessing and the governing noun. 
Sense, custom, and euphony, should be carefully consulted. 

"They praised the farmer's, as they called him. excellent understanding, 
should be, " They praised the excellent understanding of the farmer, as they 
called him." The " Lord's day" is Sunday, but " the day of the Lord" sometimes 
means the Judgment Day; " A picture of Washington" is a likeness of him ; but 
"A picture of Washington's" is one of the pictures belonging to him. " Lee's and 
Allen's store"=Lee's store and Allen's store; " Lee's and Allen's stores"=Lee's 
stores and Allen's stores; Lee and Allen's stores," is ambiguous, as it may signify 
either joint or separate possessions. " At Halsall's, the bookseller's, and station- 
er's," may suggest three different places ; but, " At Halsall's, the bookseller and 
stationer," can suggest but one place. 

Poets write — " Shiraz' walls," " Pelides' wrath" "Ajax' seven-fold shield," 
" Douglas's command," "Providence's sway," " The lance's crash," "Thebes's 
streets." 

IK The nominative most frequently precedes its verb ; and the objective most 
frequently follows the governing word. Both should be so placed as to avoid am- 
biguity, and promote elegance and force. " I love him as well as you," may mean 
either "I love him as well as I love you," or, "I love him as well as you love 
him." 

Pronouns. 

The use ofyo'u for thou is said to have originated in this, that it was formerly a 
custom and an honor for persons of rank and respectability to have attendants 
about them, and to be addressed accordingly. 

J. Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, ye, and you, your, yours, &c, should never be 



138 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS. 

intermingled, or used promiscuously in the same sentence. The same remark ap- 
plies to the different relatives. Brit when one relative clause is subordinate to an- 
other, the relatives may differ. "Thou must take care of thyself ;" "You must 
take care of yourself. " They worship 'the Great Spirit,' who has created them, 
ivho preserves them, and to whom they expect to go after death. 1 ' But, " There are 
men that have nothing, who are happier than he." 

The predominant sense of who is, to suggest persons or other objects viewed as 
having the reason, sympathy, and individuality of human beings ; of which, brute 
animals, or things, or other objects viewed as things. That is usually restrictive. 
Whether it is to be preferred to who or which, may sometimes be determined by 
some preceding word that fixes the application of the antecedent, but more fre- 
quently by the sense. Who and which are generic ; that is specific. Who and 
which may sometimes suggest the entire class of objects ; that perhaps never does, 
but only the part described by its own clause. " I do not like men who do mean 
little actions," may imply that all men do mean little actions ; but, " I do not like 
men that do mean little actions," expresses the intended meaning. " I took the 
pigeons which were white," " He is like a beast of prey which destroys without 
pity," " He is a man who is rich," are not equivalent to — " I took the pigeons that 
were white," "He is like a beast of prey that destroys without pity," "He is a man 
that is rich," better, " He is a rich -man." In general, that is preferable when it is 
doubtful whether who or which should be used ; also, when the intention is, to show 
that a preceding word is restricted to something particular, or to something viewed 
in a particular light. But when the adjective or the conjunction that stands near, 
euphony may sometimes exclude the relative that. Whether as or that should be 
used after same, depends often on whether the verb of the latter clause is omitted 
or expressed. " Yours is the same as mine ;" " You have the same that I have." 

The doctrine of the relative that, in reference to who and which, as taught in our 
grammars, seems to rest on a rather sandy foundation, if we appeal to the practice 
of our best writers. I have met with well-read people " who" contend that who 
should always be used in speaking of persons. And Lord Macaulay, a remarkably 
accurate writer, nearly always uses it so, regardless of grammar. " A strange 
question was raised by the very last person who ought to have raised it." — Macau- 
lay. " The highest churchmen who still remained were Doctor William Beveridge, 
Archdeacon of Colchester, who many years later became bishop of St. Asaph .... 
and Doctor John Scott, the same who had prayed by the deathbed of Jeffreys." — 
Id.* " No man that ever lived was," &c.—Id. " ' The Bishop of Salisbury,' said 
Tillotson, ' is one of the best and wor^t friends that I know.' " — Id. " The first 
words which he spoke," &c. — Id. " The same atrocities which had," &c. — Id. 

The relative which was formerly applied to persons as well as to things. " I 
know that ye seek Jestj3, which was crucified." — Bible. 

Whether was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, in referring to one of 
two; but, in this sense, which or whichever supplies its place now, and it is em- 
ployed only as a conjunction that usually corresponds to or. " Whether of the 
twain" = Which of the two. " Whether he will or not." 

A very practical rule in regard to personification is the following : " Objects 
represented as persons, take pronouns denoting persons." When a pronoun re- 
fers to a figurative antecedent, great care should be taken to ascertain whether 
the literal or the figurative sense prevails, and to select the pronoun accordingly. 
" He was the soul which animated the party." " Brave souls ! who died for 
liberty." Wordsworth says, of a Highland beauty, " She was a conspicuous 
flower, whom he had sensibility to love, ambition to attempt, and skill to win." 
Macaulay writes, "Several epigrams were written on the double-faced Janus [the 
name of a statue, applied to a man], who, having got a professorship by looking 
one way, hoped to get a bishopric by looking another." 

2. A collective noun, when used to denote a group of persons or other beings 
as one whole, is of the neuter gender, and singular number. Such nouns are 
properly represented by the pronouns applicable to things; as, "The mob which 
assailed the palace, soon lost Us leader." 

Our language is defective in not having, in the third person, a singular pro- 
noun for the common gender. This often leads to an improper use of the plural 
pronouns they, their, &c. ; as, " Every member of the church should have their own 
pews." In such cases, we must use either the singular masculine pronoun for both 
sexes, or both the masculine and the feminine, or the neuter, (if we are speaking 
of small animals,) or we must pluralize the antecedent. " Every servant knew his 






NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS. 139 

duty. " " Every member of the church should have his or Tier own pew." " Every 
animil loves its like." " The child loves its mother.' 7 " All the members should 
have their pews," &c. To avoid difficulties of construction, it may sometimes be 
best to recast gnarly sentences, and express the meaning in some other way. 

"Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, and waste its sweetness on the 
desert air." — Gray's Elegy. " In Hawick twinkled many a light, behind him soon 
they set in night." — Seott. " Full many a lady have I eyed with best regard ; and 
many a time the harmony of their tongues hath into bondage brought my too dili- 
gent ear." — Shakespeare: Tempest, Act iii, Scene 1. Hence, grammarians have said, 
that when many a, and the pronoun relating to it, occur in the same clause, the 
latter should be singular; if in diiferent clauses, the latter should [may] be plural. 
The plural structure seems to violate the general principle that governs the syntax 
of every, each, no, nor, &c. : but the example quoted from Shakespeare, stands 
doubtless best as it is ; for the singular pronoun would seem to refer to one partic- 
ular lady, and " many ladies" would not suggest that the person "fell in love" 
from time to time. In the following example, however, quoted and justified by 
Mr. Goold Brown, I should rather use the singular structure throughout: " Hard 
has been the fate of many a great genius, that [,] while they have conferred immor- 
tality od others, they have wanted themselves some friend to embalm their names to 
posterity." — Welwood. I should prefer the plural pronoun, only when it obviously 
conveys the sense better. 

3 & 4. The relative properly relates to the nearest substantive, before it, that 
it can represent so as to make sense ; and it should generally stand as near as pos- 
sible to its antecedent. " There' was very little theory in the discourse that pleased 
me." "The man forsook his wife, who had always been kind and affectionate." 
The ambiguity of these sentences might have been avoided by a different arrange- 
ment of the parts. " There was, in the discourse, very little theory that pleased 
me ;" "There was very little theory that pleased me, in the discourse;" "In the 
discourse that pleased me, there was very little theory." " The man, who had al- 
ways been kind and affectionate, forsook his wife;" "His wife, who had always 
been kind aud affectionate, the man forsook." When ambiguity can not be 
avoided by the arrangement of the words, the noun itself must be used, or the 
meaning must be expressed by a different sentence. " The lad can not leave his 
father; for if he should leave his father, the father would die." When two or 
more antecedents are introduced into a sentence, which denote different objects, 
and are not capable of being distinguished by the pronouns relating to them, it 
is sometimes difficult to avoid the entangling of the pronouns, or to make the 
structure satisfactory. By judicious arrangement and repetition, the difficulty may 
generally be avoided ; and rather than make the sentence clumsy by repetition, I 
think it may sometimes be better even to let the pronouns stand, provided the 
meaning, though liable to grammatical ambiguity, is yet sufficiently obvious to 
ordinary com?non sense. To avoid obscurity, it is sometimes better to use a suit- 
able noun, than a pronoun representing the noun as suggested by the use of an 
adjective, a phrase, or a clause. " I admit he is sagacious in trouble, but it can 
not save him now." Say, " but his sagacity," &c. 

In such expressions as "It was not I, that said so," "It was he, that said so," 
the genuine antecedent of that is undoubtedly "It." But sometimes, by a sort of 
attraction, the relative agrees with the nearest substantive. " 'Tis these that early 
taint the female mind." " It is they and their P03TERrrr who are to suffer." Some- 
times, however, there is evidently a difference in sense: as, "It is not I, that 
does it ; " It is not I that do it." 

The following seuteuces differ in meaning : " I am the general, who give orders 
to-dav;" "lam the general, who gives orders to-day." By the first, you learn 
that lam the general; by the second, that it is my business to give the orders. Mr. 
Butler's Remark, "A relative pronoun which modifies the subject, should not be 
placed after a noun in the predicate," is too stringent on the liberty of writers, 
and would condemn sentences that are good English. At least, Spenser's l ' Fairy 
Queen" condemns the doctrine. 

The position of pronouns is sometimes rather troublesome. Suppose I wish 
to say, " In the Athens of America," with an emphasis, on "Athens," expressed 
by "itself." I can not say, "In the Athens itself of America," nor, "In the 
Athens of America itself," but must avoid the expression, and say, " In the very 
Athens of America." 



140 ARTICLES. 

5". The pronoun may sometimes be elegantly used with the noun, when we 
wish first to draw the attention emphatically to the object itself, and then to nay 
something of it. "Beautiful Mary Porter, — where is she now!" " My bank's 
they are furnished with bees." " Harry's flesh it fell away." This phraseology 
is more allowable in poetry or impassioned discourse than in any other kind. 

Compound relatives suggest by means of their termination an indefinite or uni- 
versal antecedent, and hence they are not usually accompanied by an antecedent ; 
as, " Whoever lives temperately, will be apt to live long." Even the simple rela- 
tive sometimes sufficiently suggests the antecedent ; as, " Who steals my purse, 
steals trash." A relative pronoun, in the objective case, may sometimes be ele- 
gantly omitted ; as, "There is the man I want to see," for, u There is the man 
whom I want to see." "I have brought a basket to carry it in." "There is 
nothing to judge by." But to omit the preposition and the relative, is inelegant 
or improper; as, "In the condition I was then," better, "In the condition in 
which I was then." The relative that is frequently used improperly, without a 
governing word, as a mere connective. " At the same time that the meat was 
roasting, the bread was baking;" better, "While the meat was roasting," &c. 
What or but what should not be used in the place of that. " I could not believe 
but what [otherwise than that] you had been sick ;" " I have no doubt but what 
[that] you will succeed." 

Some grammarians condemn such use of the personal pronouns as is shown in 
the following sentence : "Falstaff. It [sack] ascends me into the brain ; dries me 
there all the foolish and dull, and crudy vapors which environ it, makes it appre- 
hensive, quick, and inventive, full of nimble, fiery, and delectable shapes." — 
Shakespeare. But I think such sentences should not be disturbed. The usage was 
good in its time, and the pronoun imparts a peculiar earnestness and quaintness, 
that could not be expressed so well by any other means. 

6; Poets sometimes omit the nominative relative; as, "It was a tall young oys- 
terman A lived by the river-side" — 0. W.Holmes; and in certain kinds or sen-. 
tences, the nominative pronoun is usually omitted after but or than; as, " There is 
not a child but knows the way," " You have brought more than is needed." 

It is not necessary to repeat the subject before the second of two connected 
verbs that differ in mood or tense, or imply contrast, unless the parts are unusually 
long, or the contrast is marked and emphatic. " Many of them were of good fami- 
lies, and had held commissions in the civil war. Their pay was far higher than that 
of the most favored regiment of our time, and would in that asre have been thought a 
respectable provision for the son of a country gentleman." — Macaulay. " So large 
a sum was expended, but expended in vain." — Id. 

We sometimes find hasty letters, especially from business men, written with- 
out personal pronouns in the nominative case, wherever these can be inferred from 
the context. This style is condemned by all grammarians, and therefore should 
be avoided. Yet in favor of it may be urged — 1. Some foreign languages usually 
omit the nominative pronouns from their verbs; 2. Tiresome repetition and an 
egotistical air are somewhat avoided, without leaving the sense obscure; 3. Good 
authors sometimes use this style, or what is equivalent to it, when their discourse 
is fragmentary, and designed to appear hasty, or full of sprightliness and vivacity. 

Ex. — "Tender-eyed blonde. Long ringlets. Cameo pin. Locket. Bracelet. 
Album. Meads Byron, Tupper, and Sylvanus Cobb, junior, while her mother 
makes the puddings. Says, i Yes V when you tell her anything." — 0. W. Holmes. 

6. ARTICLES. 

? 193. An article is a word placed before a substantive to 

show bow it is applied. 

Ex. — Horses ; the horse, a horse, the horses. A good one ; the others. 
" From liberty each nobler science sprung, 
A Bacon brightened, and a Spenser sung." — Savage. 

Article literally means joint. The Greeks, who gave the name, frequently used nouns wUfc im 
article on each side ; iust as we might say, " I saw that steamboat that came last night:" a .one 
thus used, is not unlike the part of a limb between two joints. 



ARTICLES. 141 

* Only two words in our language are called articles: the, the 
definite article ; and a or an, the indefinite. 

? 194. Tlie points out a particular object or class, or a par- 
ticular one or portion of a class. 

Ex. — The man, the men ; the large wagon. " The sun and the moon." " The 
fowls of the air and the fishes of the sea." "The lion is nobler than the hyena." 
"The statesman should be honored, as well as the soldier." " The Delawares and 
the Cherokees are Indians almost civilized." " The poor and the rich, the wise 
and the ignorant." 

? 195. It sometimes precedes a proper noun, to render it suf- 
ficiently definite; or else it points out a certain object as already 
known or heard of, or as preeminently distinguished. 

Ex. — " Missouri and OJiio mean States; but the Missouri and the Ohio mean 
rivers." "The Fulton went up the river this morning." " The Turk was dream- 
ing of the hour." " The generous Lafayette and the noble Washington." 

? 196. The may relate to either a singular or a plural word. 
Ex. — The river, the rivers ; the four men, the fourth man ; the one, the others. 

? 197. A or an shows that no particular one of a class is meant. 

Ex. — A man, a bird, a wagon, an owl, a plum ; a small picture. "He was a 
merchant." It suggests that there are others of the same kind, and also that there 
are other kinds ofbbjects. 

? 198. Sometimes the predominant idea is any, sometimes one. 

Ex. — "A man may lose all his property in a year" =*Any man may lose all his 
property in one year. 

? 199. A or an can be used to point out one only, or one 
aggregate. Sometimes more are spoken of, but they are still con- 
sidered one by one. 

Ex. — " A penf not, A pens. " An idler ; a large orange ; a dozen apples ; a 
wealthy people ; a few dimes." " I gave for the marbles a dime a dozen." "We 
paid for the mules a hundred dollars a head.' ' 

When a noun is limited by other words, the indefinite article affects not the 
noun alone, but the noun thus limited. "A young man," "A man of fine sense," 
do not mean no particular man ; bat, no particular young man, no particular man 
of fine sense. 

? A and an are both called the indefinite article, because they 
are but a later and an earlier form of the same word, have the same 
meaning, and differ in use only. 

? 200 Before words beginning with a vowel sound, an should 

be used. Before a, e, i, o, u not equivalent to yu, y articulated 

with a consonant after it, silent h, and h faintly sounded when 

the next syllable has the chief accent. 

Ex. — u Anaxm', an ear of corn; an idle boy; an orange; an urn; an hour; 
an heroic deed." 

? 201. Before words beginning with a consonant sound, a should 

be used. U long, eu, w, o in one, and y articulated with a vowel 

after it, have each a consonant sound. 

Ex.— H A brother, a cup, a union ; a eulogy ; a yearling ; a word ; a one-horse 
carriage. 



142 ARTICLES. EXERCISES. 

? 202. No article is used when we refer chiefly to the nature of 
the object, to the class generally, or to only a part indefinitely ; also 
when the substantive is sufficiently definite itself, or is rendered so 
by other words. 

Ex. — "Meat is dearer than bread. 11 "Gold is heavier than silver. 11 "He took 
water, and changed it into wine. 11 "Peaches are better than apples. 11 " Virtue and 
vice are opposites. 11 " Working is better than stealing or starving. 11 "Man is en 
dowed with reason. 11 " There are fishes with wings. 11 " John, George, '76 ; that 
tree; this tree* every tree ; some trees; all trees; Post Office." "Words that 
breathe." "They were the means by which ;" not, the which. 

General Illustration. — " From the beginning of the world, an uninterrupted 
series of predictions had announced and prepared the long-expected coming of 
the Messiah, who, in compliance with the gross apprehensions of the Jews, had 
been more frequently represented under the character of a king and conqueror, than 
under that of a prophet, a martyr, or the son of God." — Gibbon's Rome. 

? Articles, being used to aid nouns, are said to belong to them. When 
the article stands only before the first of two or more connected nouns, 
it belongs to them jointly, if they denote but one person or thing, or 
more viewed as one ; if not, it belongs to the first noun, and is understood 
before the others. 

Ex.— " I saw Webster, the great statesman and orator." "Of books I am a 
borrower and lender." u A man and horse passed by the house and lot." " A 
man, l woman, and A child were drowned." 

? The is sometimes an adverb ; a, a preposition ; and an, a conjunction. 

Ex. — "The stronger,^ better." " To go a [at] hunting." "Falstaff. An I 
have not tunes made on you all, and sung to fifty tunes, may a cup of sack be 
my poison." — S^ 



EXERCISES. 
Examples to be Analyzed and Parsed. 

Parse the articles; — 

The cat caught a mouse. A crow flew over the valley. The oxen 
are grazing on the meadow. The* lion roams in Africa. The lion killed 
his keeper. The b Gasconade is exceedingly clear and beautiful. The 
Highland Mary leaves St. Louis to-day. The ancients did not know the 
use of the compass. A c beautiful white house gleamed from the summit 
of the adjacent hill. A free people should be jealous of their liberties. 
I have bought a d dozen' chickens. The lambs were sold for a dollar a 
head. The e bright stars without number adorn the sky. We send ex- 
ports to the Sandwich Islands. 

(a.) definite, it refers to '* lion''' as denoting a particular kind of animals ; and belongs 

to "lion" &c. (6.) definite, it refers to "Gasconade" as denoting a particular river ; and 

belongs to it, &c. (c.) indefinite, it does not refer to "beautiful white house" as denoting 

a particular one of the kind; and belongs to "house" according to Rule X. (d.) in- 
definite, no particular "dozen chickens" are meant ; &c. (e.) definite, the reference is 

to " stars" as denoting a particular class of things. 



ARTICLES. EXERCISES. 



143 



Examples to be Corrected. 

Ail the liabilities to error in regard to articles, may be reduced to the follow- 
ing heads : — 

1. When not used. 2. When the definite article should be 
used. 3. When the indefinite article should be used. 4. Whether 
A or an should be used. 5. Improper use of a or an before plu- 
rals. 6. When the article should not be repeated. 7. When the 
article should be repeated. 

1. When not Used. 

No article is used, — 

1. When the mind considers an object in reference to its nature or 
character, rather than as an individual to be distinguished from others, or 
from something else. Or: When the noun answers to what rather than 
to who or which. 

2. When the mind refers to the whole species generally, or to only a 
part indefinitely. 

3. When the substantive is sufficiently definite by itself, or is rendered 
so by other limiting words. 

a. The article is sometimes elegantly omitted from titular phrases or 
from other familiar expressions, when the omission can lead to no miscon- 
ception of the meaning. 

What sort of a man is he? He is a different sort of a man. What kind 
of an article, then, would you call a? We found him a very worthy good sort 
of an old man. — a very worthy good old man. Such a man does not deserve 
the name of a gentleman. The highest officer of a State is styled a Governor. 
They hated the name of a Stuart. Santa Anna ruled over the nation, under 
the title of a Dictator. The original signification of knave was a boy. The 
pink, the rose, and the lily, are the names of certain species of a flower. The 
weather is getting cool enough for a fire. Of these twins, I never can tell the 
one from the other. He was drowned in the attempting to cross the Missis- 
sippi. A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles. This 
tree is worth the planting — the being planted. The stray horses are posted at 
this place. (Of course not all ; nor can they be contrasted with any other class 
of horses.) Reason was given to a man to control his passions. (Of course to 
more than one.) I had a reference to the other. You may avoid offensive 
expressions by a circumlocution. These foreigners, in the general, are peaceful 
and industrious. You may send the letter by the mail. (No particular mail 
was meant.) The whites of America are the descendants of the Europeans ; 
but the blacks are the descendants of the Africans. A neuter verb can not be- 
come a passive. These sketches are not imaginary, but taken from the life. 
The law by the which they were condemned. It would take a half a day to 
do it. The ancients believed the fire, the air, the earth, and the water, to be 
the elements of all other material things. 

2. When the Definite Article should be Used. 

The definite article is used, — 

1. To make the following noun sufficiently definite for denoting a par- 
ticular object as distinguished from others of the same kind, or from some- 
thing else. 

2. To show that the whole is meant, or that all of the kind are meant 



144 ARTICLES. — EXERCISES. 

"Women who never take any exercise, necessarily become invalids. The 
women who — or, Women that, &c. Persons who have been instructed in col- 
leges, are said to have a collegiate education. The work is designed for the 
use of persons who may think it merits a place in their libraries. No account 
is given of such an event by historians who lived at that time. Modes of 
traveling in the last century were far inferior to ours. "Wisest and best men 
sometimes commit errors. John Simonds [a boat] left for New Orleans yester- 
day. They forbid wearing of rings and jewels. Convert sinners without shed- 
ding of blood. Great benefit may be derived from reading of good books. A 
neglecting of our own affairs, and a meddling with those of others, are the 
sources of many troubles. The Indians are descendants of the aborigines of 
this country. A pronoun is a part of speech used as a substitute for a noun. 
A violet is an emblem of modesty. A lion is bold, a cat is treacherous, and a 
dog is faithful. Sometimes one article is improperly used for another. Who 
breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ? ( Wheel here means a peculiar engine for tor- 
turing. There is also reference to other kinds of punishment.) I have a right 
to do it. (The universal abstract was meant.) 

3. When the Indefinite Article should be Used. 

The indefinite article is used — 

To show that no particular one is meant, implying that there are or may 
be others. Its various meanings range through the substitutes one, any, 
all, each, every, and the phrase — this, and not any thing else. 

a. When a is used before few or little, the meaning is, some at least. 

b. When no article is used before few or little, the meaning is, none, or 
almost none. 

The profligate man is seldom or never found to be the good husband, the 
good father, or the beneficent neighbor. In Holland, great part of the land has 
been rescued from the sea. He received only the fourth part of the estate. The 
interest is the tenth part of the sum. A pronoun is the word used for a noun. 
A librarian is the person who has charge of a library. Avoid the too frequent 
repetition of the same word. Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, 
and has another adjective joined to it. An articulate sound is the sound of the 
human voice, formed by the organs of speech. Contrast makes each of the 
contrasted objects appear in the stronger light. To the business of others I 
give but a little attention. A little respect should be paid to those who deserve 
none. Are not my days a few ? A few men of his age enjoy so good health. 
So bold a breach of conduct called for little severity in punishing the offender. 

4. Whether A or An should be Used. 

1. A should be used before consonant sounds. 

2. An should be used before vowel sounds. - \ 

a. A word beginning with the consonant sound of w or of y, is to be 
treated as if beginning with a consonant ;. as, One, union, eulogy. 

b. A word beginning with h sounded, and having the accent on the 
second syllable, is usually treated as if beginning with a vowel; as, Heroic, 
hyena, hiatus, hereditary. 

He had a interest in the matter. It was a humble and dutiful petition to 
the throne. Argus is said to have had an hundred eyes. An African or an 
European. An heretic; a heretical opinion. A harangue. A hyena. A hia- 
tus. A harmonious flow of words. Is it an i or an u f An history ; a histo- 
rical account ; a historian. A heroic poem. A hyperbole. A hypothesis, 



ARTICLES. EXERCISES. 145 

An hexagon ; a hexagonal figure. There was not an human being on the place. 
An hopeful young man. An unity of interest. I would not make such an 
use of it. It was not such an one as I wanted. 

5. Improper Use of A or An before Plurals. 

The indefinite article should never be so used as to appear to have a 
plural signification. Insert words, omit words, or change the term. 

A winding stairs led us to the Senate Chamber. A flight of &c. I saw her 
trim her nails with a scissors. — a pair of — The next object was, to provide 
a head-quarters. The farm was a long ways from town. The right wing en- 
camped behind a small woods. I saw a snuffers lying on the mantel-piece. 
This idiom is a remains of the Saxon dialect. Let us make a little memoranda 
of it. A few miles from the river is a large swamp, or flats. The problem 
can not be solved from such a data. A long minutiae of detail made the story 
very tedious. About a two days afterwards the legates returned to Caesar. 
The child was not a three weeks old, when it died. The Jews were permitted 
to return to their country, after a seventy years of captivity at Babylon. — a 
captivity of seventy years — An eight years' war was the consequence. With 
such a spirit and intrigues was the war carried on. — and such intrigues — 
The cottage was fringed by a very handsome eaves. A mother and children 
were captured by the Indians. — and her children — A neat house and gar- 
dens were thus sold for a trifle. My friend bought a house and lots in the 
suburbs of St. Louis. 

Remark. — Allowable : " Never did a set of rascals travel further to find a gal- 
lows." —Irving. "The draught of air performed the function of a bellows" — Dr. 
Robertson. Irving also has the phrase " a tongs." See Numbers, p. 106. 

6. When the Article should not be Repeated. 

7. When the Article should be Repeated. 

1. When the repetition of the article would suggest more objects than 
are meant, the article should be omitted. 

2. When the omission of the article would not suggest all the objects 
meant, the article should be repeated. 

3. The article is elegantly omitted to show that the objects are joined, or 
comprehended in one view. 

4. The article is elegantly inserted to show that the objects are separate, 
distinct, or opposite ; or that they are viewed so. 

5. When the article relates to a series of terms, it should precede the 
whole series, or else each term of the series. 

The forsaken may find another and a better friendt My friend was married 
to a sensible and an amiable woman. The matter deserves an impartial, a 
careful, and a thorough investigation. Everett, the scholar, the statesman, and 
the orator, should be invited. The white and black inhabitants amount to 
several thousands. A hot and cold spring issued from the same mountain. 
The sick and wounded were left at this place. The Eastern and. the Western 
Continents. The Eastern and Western Continent. The first and the last pay- 
ments are the two in dispute. Give the possessive and the objective cases of 
who — the possessive and objective case of who. The Old and New Testament. 
The Old and the New Testaments. Macaulay is not so good a poet as an his- 
torian. He is not so good a statesman as a soldier. She is not so good a 
cook as a washerwoman. I am a better arithmetician than a grammarian. 
The figure is a globe, a ball, or a sphere. Is this a v, a, or u t A Philosoph- 

7 



146 ARTICLES. EXERCISES. 

ical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful. The 
Latin introduced between the Conquest and reign of Henry the Eighth. (" Con- 
quest" refers to William the Conqueror, not to Henry.) In my last lecture I 
treated of the concise and diffuse, the nervous and feeble manner. The black 
and red soil will produce the best crops. (Two kinds of soil were meant.) A 
horse and a buggy went up to the house. Here, at different times, the parents 
had buried a son and daughter. He understands neither the Latin or Greek 
languages. — neither the Latin language nor the Greek. (Parts compared, con- 
trasted, or distinctly noticed, should be expressed with equal fullness.) The 
poor as well as rich, the high and low, the wise and ignorant, would be bene- 
fited by such a law. Both the house and barn were consumed by fire. He 
has distinguished himself both as a teacher and scholar. Neither the poor nor 
rich are completely happy. You must shoot a bear either through the heart 
or brain. — or through the train. Let us make a distinction between the loss 
and expense. There is little difference between a catamount and leopard-cat. 
It is not difficult to distinguish the demagogue from statesman. Not the use, 
but abuse, of worldly things, is sinful* The young, as well as old, may sicken 
and die. It was not the loss, but dishonor, that grieved him. We are the 
friends, not enemies, of the Institution. I would rather pluck a lily than 
rose. I would rather hear the whippoorwill than katydid. The one or other 
of the two. There is not a tree in the yard, nor flower in the garden. The 
hum of bees, and songs of birds, fell sweetly upon my ear. Was the man fined, 
and damage paid ? The oak, ash, maple, elm, and the hickory, are the prin- 
cipal trees of this State. Such a law would be injurious to the farmer, me- 
chanic, and the merchant. Gome is an irregular transitive verb ; found in the 
indicative mood, the present tense, third person, and singular number. 

Remark. — Avoid such an arrangement of terms as will make the article relate 
to some to which you do not mean to apply it. Example : " I was thinking of the 
solar system, time, and space;" i. e., the solar system, the solar time, and the so^ 
lar space. But the author meant to say, u I was thinking of time, space, and the 
solar system." 

Miscellaneous Examples. 

I have had a dull sort of a headache all day. The Tennessee, the Missis- 
sippi, and the Missouri, are all the names derived from the Indian languages. 
The violation of this rule never fails to displease a reader. A or an is sometimes 
used to convey an idea of unity. By adding s to dove, we make it a plural. 
When a whole is put for the part, or the part for a whole ; a genus for the spe- 
cies, or the species for a genus ; a singular for a plural, or a plural for a singu- 
lar, the figure is called a synecdoche. Surely there is little satisfaction in the 
having caused another's ruin. She contributed a thousand dollars to build- 
ing of a college edifice. The virtues like his are not easily acquired : such 
qualities honor the nature of a man. I bought a vest-pattern and trimmings, 
ibr five dollars. This caused an universal consternation throughout the colo- 
nies. — Burke. We stopped at a hotel on Broadway. Apostrophe [ ' ] is used 
in the place of a letter left out. The day and night succeed each other. All 
the chief priests and elders took counsel against Jesus, to put him to death. 
You may measure the time by a watch, clock, or dial. Beware of drunken- 
ness : it impairs understanding, wastes an estate, destroys a reputation, consumes 
the body, and renders the man of the brightest parts the common jest of the 
meanest clown. True charity is not the meteor which occasionally glares, bur, 
the luminary which, in its orderly and regular course, dispenses benignant in- 
fluence. Purity has its seat in the heart, o*ut extends it3 influence over so 
much of the outward conduct, as to form the great and material part of a 
ciiaracter. 



ARTICLES. — OBSERVATIONS. 147 

OBSERVATIONS. 

From the Saxon ane are derived our an, a, and one. Hence an is the older 
form, which has become a for the sake of euphony. Even in English written in 
the last century, we not unfrequently find an used where a would now he prefer- 
red. An or a is now sometimes equivalent to one ; hut generally it differs from it 
by a shade of meaning. " It weighs a pound, or one pound ;" but when I say, 
" The whole community rose like one man, and built a bridge over the river," one 
and a are not interchangeable. "Will you take a horse?" — or something else? 
" Will you take one horse ?" — or two? The is akin to that, but less emphatic ; and 
formerly it was sometimes used even before relative pronouns. " Northumber- 
land, thou ladder, by the which my cousin. Bolingbroke ascends my throne." — 
Shakespeare. 

As a general thing, substantives must have or assume meaning, or must have 
meaning liable to be widened or contracted, before the articles can be applied to 
them ; and substantives must be without meaning, or have meaning not liable to 
be widened or contracted, or must be fixed in application, before they can dispense 
with the articles. Substantives denoting material or abstract substances sui gene- 
ris, or having themselves the accessory idea of distinction from other things, do 
not require the article. The article generally has a double reference : the one, to 
other objects of the same kind ; and the other, to other kinds. " Give me an 
apple," refers not only to other apples, but also, by way of exclusion, to oranges, 
peaches, plums, cakes, or other objects. 

The often suggests that there is but one object or group of the kind, supposed, 
by the speaker, to be generally known ; a or an always implies that there are or. 
may be other similar objects. The implies that the speaker and the hearer have 
in common a knowledge of the individual as well as of the class, — such a knowl- 
edge as enables the speaker to suggest at once to the hearer, by means of the ar- 
ticle, the object meant; but a or "an does not necessarily require that they have 
in common more than a knowledge of the class. 

The article may be definite, indefinite, or omitted, according to many different 
views : — 

1. Definite, as referring to the general knowledge of mankind. " The sun, the 
earth, the Messiah, the dyspepsy, the sword, the Sabbath." 

2. Definite, as referring to the general knowledge of a community, — to things 
often noticed, or often thought of. "The Missouri Compromise." "The Legis- 
lature." "The never-failing brook, the busy mill, the decent church that topped the 
neighboring hill." 

3. Definite, as referring to the knowledge of the family circle. " Go to the well 
— to the barn." "Where is the washbowl V "The old oaken bucket." 

4. Definite^ as referring to the knowledge of the person addressed. " Give me 
the letter." 

5. Definite, as referring to what has been mentioned, spoken of, or already 
brought to the notice of the person addressed. " Go along till you come to a 
bridge ; and just beyond the bridge, turn to the right." These last two principles 
are often violated ; speakers or writers presuming too much on the knowledge of 
their hearers or readers, or speaking of objects unknown as if other people were 
as well acquainted with them as they themselves are. " I will now give you an 
account of the great hurricane which passed over our village, when I was a boy." 
Say, " a great." 

6. Definite, as referring to the class to which the object belongs. "The [boat] 
Fulton went up the Hudson" [river]. " Alexander the Great." " Bolivar was the 
Washington of South America." 

7. Definite, by way of preeminence. (See the preceding paragraph.) "The man 
of men." " The Bible is the book of books." "The generous Lafayette." 

8. Definite, as comprehending the whole class, or as referring to other classes 
of objects. " The horse is a useful animal." "The letters are divided," <fcc. "The 
beautiful." ( " The Stuarts." u One or the other of two." 

9. Definite, as referring to the other parts associated with the object. " The 
neck connects the head and the trunk." 

10. Definite, as being a necessary part or accompaniment, and as being there- 
fore known to some extent to the hearer. "The weather was fine." " The fare 
was good : the coffee and rolls were particularly excellent," " Andre stood beside 
the coffin." " The enemy were on the other side." 



148 ARTICLES.— OBSERVATIONS. 

11. Definite, as being alone, or all, and known to be so. "The earth is some- 
what flat at the poles." "The first and the last." 

12. Definite, as being made so by some accompanying descriptive words. " The 
blue-eyed damsel." "The winds of autumn." "The man who is upright." 

1. Indefinite, as first introducing an object of a known class, or as implying that 
there are or may be other objects of the same kind. "An old manuscript, found 
in Rome, has," &c. " He is a saddler." "A Homer." In this sense, the noun 
may be even to some extent made definite by other words. 

2. Indefinite, as being used in the sense of any, each, or every. "A conjunction 
connects words." "A dollar a pair." 

3. Indefinite, to exclude the ambiguous sense which the would give. " She re- 
ceived a third of the estate." "The third" might suggest a particular third. " A 
librarian is a person who has charge of a library." "The person" might suggest 
that "person 1 '' is the subject-nominative. 

1. Omitted, because the mind does not individualize the object, or conceive it 
with definite limits. " Orthography treats of the forms of letters and words. 11 
" The oak is a species of tree. 11 

2. Omitted, because, by frequent notice of the object, the word has acquired al- 
most the definiteness of a proper name, or because it is merely descriptive. 
" Where is father P 1 " At table. 11 " With body and soul. 11 " On foot." " Go 
to bed. 11 " Boston Common. 11 

3. Omitted, because if used it might imply too much importance or emphasis. 
" Notice." "A Notice" might suggest, Now look here ; for this is a notice that is 
a notice. 

4. Omitted, because it might give a wrong impression. " He was then sheriff. 11 
"Use essence of peppermint." "She is heir to a little fortune." 

5. Omitted, for the sake of poetic measure. " The why is -plain as way to 
parish church." — Shakespeare. 

Always consider carefully, in the use of words, what the sense requires. " A 
pine is a species of a tree." is improper ; because one tree is not a class, nor is a 
whole class a part of one tree. The pine is a species of tree. " Bear Worcester to 
the death." — Shak. Improper, because no particular kind of death was meant. 
— to death — to his death. " A half eagle," and " half an eagle," are not necessarily 
equivalent. What is true of all, is usually true of each: hence we can say, "A 
wise man may be more useful than a rich man ;" "A good pupil never disobeys his 
instructor;" — or, "The wise man may be more useful than the rich man;" " The 
good pupil never disobeys his instructor." There are some things that may be con 
ceived either in the gross or as individuals ; and hence the article may be either 
omitted or used. u It fell with loud noise /" " It fell with a loud noise. 11 " I see a 
farm." First observance ; just enough knowledge of it to tell what it is. " I see the 
farm." Previous knowledge. " Caesar, a Caesar;" "From liberty each nobler 
science sprung, a Bacon brightened, and a Spenser sung." Meaning assumed, 
application extended. " Dar'st thou, then, to beard the lion in his den, — the Dou- 
glas in his hall ?" — Scott. " These are the sacred feelings of thy heart, O Lyttle- 
ton, the friend." — Thomson. " I am surprised that he should have treated coldly a 
man so much the gentleman." Preeminence. The is sometimes an elegant substi- 
tute for the possessive pronoun. " He took me by the hand" — my hand. " You 
may always know the tree by the fruit" — its fruit. " They had never bowed the 
knee to a tyrant." 

" There are few mistakes in his composition" — almost none. " There are a few 
mistakes in his composition" — some — many. " There are not a few mistakes in his 
composition" — very many. So, " She has little vanity;" " She has a little vanity;" 
"She has not a little vanity." A noun limited by the indefinite article, may 
often be made plural in the same sense, by omitting the article : as, " He was 
a representative from St. Louis ;" " They were representatives from St. Louis." 
Elegance requires, — "He paid neither the principal nor the interest — both the 
principal and the interest — the principal as well as the interest — the principal, but 
not the interest — principal and interest. We usually say, " Too good a man," 
" Too large an apple," <xc. ; accordingly, it is better to say, " Too nice a woman," 
" Too frequent a repetition," than, " A too nice woman," " A too frequent rep- 
etition." " He is a better poet than painter." He is not so good a painter. " He 
i* a better painter than a poet." In painting, he excels poets. "The black and 
white calf " — one calf. "The black and the white calf " — two. " He wrote for a 
light and a strong wagon" — two. " He wrote for a light and strong wagon" — one. 



ADJECTIVES. 149 

" He married a handsome, a sensible, and an accomplished woman' 1 — married 
three. Say, " a handsome, sensible, and accomplished woman." " A farmer, 
lawyer, and politician, addressed the assembly" — one person. "I saw the editor, 
the printer, and the proprietor of the paper" — three persons. But, for the sake of 
emphasis, and when the meaning can not be misconceived, the article is some- 
times repeated ; as, " There sat the wise, the eloquent, and the patriotic Chatham." 
" Give me the fourth and the last," may not be equivalent to v Give me the fourth 
and last." We can not say, " The definite and the indefinite articles," nor, 
"The definite and indefinite article ;" but we must say, " The definite and the in- 
definite article," "The definite and indefinite articles," or, " The definite article and 
the indefinite." The last is generally the best mode of expression. The omission 
of the article sometimes implies a unity in the objects, or in the view taken; the 
repetition of it, separation. " The soul and body." Viewed as one. "The soul 
and the body." Viewed separately and distinctly. "The day, the hour, and the 
minute, were specified." Emphasis. " I have just sold a house and lot — a horse 
and buggy." One belonged to the other. " I have just sold a house and a lot — 
a horse and a buggy." One did not belong to the other. " He is a poet and a 
mathematician." Qualifications seldom found in the same person. "He is a 
physician and surgeon — a lawyer and. politician." Qualifications usually found in 
the same person. " A singular and plural antecedent require a plural verb." — 
Wells. Require, in the plural number, shows the sense ; but the article should 
rather have been repeated. "There are three persons; the first, second, and 
third." Mr. Brown contends that this should be, " There are three persons ; 
the first, the second, and the third." I think he is hypercritical in regard to such 
expressions. Query. — Should the indefinite article be repeated before each one of 
a series of substantives, merely because a different form of the article is required ? 
Mr. Murray thinks it should ; the other grammarians treat the difficulty with char- 
acteristic evasion. I should not hesitate to omit the article to avoid a clumsier 
expression. I should rather say, " A preposition shows the relation of a noun, 
adjective, verb, or adverb, to an objective," than, " A preposition shows the rela- 
tion of a noun, an adjective, a verb, or an adverb, to an objective." Some of the 
best authors favor the former mode of expression. Such expressions as "A histo- 
rian," "A harmonic scale," have occasionally been countenanced by the best writers 
and critics ; and it would seem that euphony sometimes allows the a, when the 
first syllable is closed by a consonant sound, or when the h is heard with con- 
siderable distinctness. 

7. ADJECTIVES. 

? 203. An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the 
meaning of a substantive. 

Ex. — "A mellow apple ; a beautiful woman ; a brilliant star ; five carriages ; yon- 
der mountains ; trass buttons ; hoary-headed men ; a large, red, and juicy apple ; 
eyes bright, blue, and affectionate." "He is industrious and frugal." " 1?o slight 
the poor is mean." 

Our language has about 7,000 adjectives; and they give to it not a little of 
its beauty, energy, and precision. 

? 204. Words from other parts of speech are frequently used as 

adjectives. 

fix. — "A gold ring; a mahogany table; state revenue; California gold; she 
Doliticians ; a would-be scholar ; parsing exercises ; rolling prairies ; the far-off 
future ; the above remarks ; a farewell address." " The lightnings flashed 'ver- 
milion."— Dante. (" The rose looks red.") " The West is as truly American, as 
genuinely Jonathan, as any other part of our country." — Wise. 

? 205. Adjectives may be divided into two chief classes ; descrip- 
tive and definitive. 

? 206. A descriptive adjective describes or qualifies. 

Ex.— -Good, white, square. " The green forest was bathed in golden light." 



150 ADJECTIVES. 

? 207. A definitive adjective merely limits or modifies. 
Ex. — " There are many wealthy farmers in this country." 

? Adjectives may be divided also into several smaller classes : namely, 
common; participial; compound; numeral, comprising cardinal, ordinal, 
and multiplicative ; and pronominal, comprising distributive, demonstrative, 
and indefinite. 

• 208. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet of the language ; 
as ? Good, upper. 

? 209. A proper adjective is an adjective derived from a proper 
noun; as, American, English, Newtonian. 

? 210. A participial adjective is a participle ascribing the act or 
state to its subject as a quality; as, "Twinkling stars." 

In the phrase " his dying day," dying is a mere adjective ; and it is plain, for 
instance, that unepitaphed—" without epitaph," and unhorsed — "deprived of 
horse,"" differ radically in sense. A participial adjective is derived directly from 
a verb, is nearly always placed before its noun, and generally expresses a per^ 
manent or habitual act or state. 

? 211. A compound adjective is a compound word used as an adjective ; 
as, u Thick-warbled songs." 

? 212. A numeral adjective expresses number definitely ; as, Two, 
second, twofold. 

? The cardinal numerals tell how many, as one, two ; the ordinal, which 
one, as first, second; and the multiplicative, how many fold, as single, double, 
twofold. A long or composite numeral is parsed as one word. 

? 213. The pronominal adjectives are a class of definitive adjectives 
of which some are occasionally used as pronouns ; as, That, this, other. 

? The distributive point out objects as taken separately; as, Each, every, 
either, neither, many a, 

? The demonstrative, or definite, point out objects definitely ; as, This, yonder. 

? The indefinite point out objects indefinitely ; as, Any, some. 



^Degrees of Comparison. 

? Since the same quality may exist in different objects and in 
different degrees, adjectives are modified to express higher or lower 
degrees, or the highest or the lowest degrees, of the quality. Hence 
adjectives have what are called the degrees of comparison. 

Ex. — " Lime is white ; milk is whiter; but snow is the whitest of all." 

? Adjectives have three degrees of comparison ; the positive, the 
comparative, and the superlative. 

? 214. a. The positive degree ascribes the quality simply. 
Ex. — " A young orchard ; a large farm." a The fields look green and/mA." 

? 215. b. It ascribes an equal degree of the quality, without refer- 
ence to lower or higher degrees of the same quality. 

Ex. — " She is as good as he." " A woman as modest as she is beautiful." 
? 216. a. The coanparative degree ascribes the quality in a 



ADJECTIVES. 151 

higher or a lower degree to one object, or set of objects, than to 
another. 

Ex. — u A younger brother ; more important affairs ; a boy less studious.' 1 '' 

? 217. b. It ascribes the quality in a higher or a lower degree, as 

reckoned from some other condition or quality of the same object or 

of a different object. 

Ex. — " A nation is happier in peace than in war." " I am letter than I was." 
" She is more accomplished than wise." " My horse is whiter than yours is black." 

? The comparative degree always implies two considered distinct from each 
other ; and it either refers to the same quality in two different objects or in two 
different conditions of the same object, or it refers to one quality as' contrasted 
with a different one. That from which it is reckoned, is sometimes understood, 
or exists only in the mind. 

Ex. — " A more eligible situation" [than some other one]. "What is better is 
always preferred." 

The comparative degree may be construed with than after it ; therefore such 
words as superior, inferior, interior, preferable, previous, &c, are not in the com- 
parative degree. And I doubt very much whether such words as inner, outer, 
upper, hinder, can be properly said to be in the comparative degree. They do 
not admit than after them, and they refer to an opposite rather than to a positive 
state : thus, upper refers to lower, rather than to up; inner, to outer. Inner and 
outer differ very little from internal and external. 

? 218. a. The superlative degree Ascribes the quality in the 

highest or the lowest degree in which such objects have it. 

Ex. — " The loveliest flowers were there." " The most skillful rider could do no 
better." "The least skillful rider Gould do no worse." "Two kindest souls alone 
must meet; 'tis friendship makes the bondage sweet." — Watts. 

? 219. b. It ascribes the quality in the highest or the lowest de- 
gree to one object, or group of objects, as compared with the rest, or 
with other conditions of the same object. 

Ex. — "The largest sycamore on the river." " The best peaches are taken from 
the tree." " He sat highest on Parnassus." " I am happiest at home." 

J The superlative degree implies three or more objects classed together ; or 
else it implies other similar conditions of the same object. 

? 220. An adjective can not be compared with propriety, when 
it denotes a quality or property that can not exist in different de- 
grees. 

Ex. — Equal, level, perpendicular, square, naked, round, straight, first, second, 
one, two, blind, deaf, dead, empty, perfect, right, honest, sincere, hollow, four- 
footed. 

? 221. Good writers, however, sometimes use such adjectives in 

the comparative or the superlative degree ; but then they do not 

take them in their full sense. 

Ex. — " Our sight is the most perfect of our senses." — Addison. This means that 
it approaches nearer, than the rest, to perfection. U And love is still an emptier 
name." — Goldsmith. Almost all descriptive or qualifying adjectives may be usea 
either as absolute, in their meaning, or as relative. And hence the comparative and 
superlative degrees may sometimes express even less of the quality than the posi- 
tive degree expresses. " John's apple may be better than mine, and William may 
have the best apple, yet not one of them may be really good." " Your largest horse 
is a mere pony." 



152 ADJECTIVES. 

? 222. A little of the quality may be expressed by adding ish 
to the positive, or by placing before it such words as rather, some- 
what, &c. 

Ex. — Black, blackish; saltish; yellowish; somewhat disagreeable; rather young. 

? 223. A high degree of the quality, without implying direct 
comparison, is expressed by very, exceedingly, a most, &c. 

Ex. — " Very respectful ; exceedingly polite ; a most distinguished soldier." 



How adjectives are compared. 

? 224. To express inferiority, we use less and least. 

Ex. — Pos. good, comp. less good, superl. least good ; important, less important, 



? 225. To express superiority, the comparison is formed by adding 

er and est to the positive, or by placing more and most before it. 

Ex. — Pos. large, comp. larger, super!, largest; rich, richer, richest ; cheerful, 
more cheerful, most cheerful. See Rules for Spelling. 

? Which of these methods should be used, depends chiefly on the sound of 
the word, or on the number of its syllables. 

? 226. Adjectives of one syllable are compared by adding er for 
the comparative, and est for the superlative. 

Ex. — Deep, deeper, deepest ; wise, wiser, wisest; sad, sadder, saddest ; dry, drier, 



? 227. Adjectives of three or more syllables must always be com- 
pared by more and most. 

Ex. — Beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. 

. Adjectives of two syllables follow some of them one method, and some the 
other. 

? 228. Adjectives of two syllables ending in y, or in le after a 
consonant, or accented on the second syllable, are generally com- 
pared by er and est. 

Ex. — Happy, happier, happiest; feeble, feebler, feeblest; polite, politer, politest. 

? 229. Some other adjectives of two syllables are sometimes com- 
pared in like manner; especially if they end in a vowel or a liquid 
sound. 

Ex. — u Narrow, narrower, narrowest ; handsome, handsomer, handsomest; ten- 
der, tenderer, tender est." " The metaphor is the commonest figure." — Blair's Rhe- 
toric. " Philosophers are but a soberer sort of madmen." — Irving. 

? 230. Some words are expressed in the superlative degree, by 
annexing most to them. 

Ex. — Foremost, utmost, inmost, innermost, hindmost, nethermost. 

? 231. To express superiority, any adjective may sometimes be 

compared by more and most. 

Ex. — " A foot more light, a step more true, 

Ne'er from the heath-nower dashed the dew." — Scott. 



ADJECTIVES. 153 

* 232. When two or more adjectives come together, of which some 
are properly compared by er and est, and others by more and most, the 
smaller are generally placed first, and all are compared as one, by more 
and most. 

Ex. — " The more nice and elegant parts." — Johnson. " Homer's imagination was 
by far the most rich and copious." — Pope. 

More, most, less, and least, when used to compare other words, should be 
parsed separately, and as adverbs. 

? The adjectives whose comparison can not be learned by means of a 
general rule, are said to be irregular. 

Ex. — " Good, letter, best; bad, worse, worst." See p. 11. 



Number. 

? Some adjectives express number. 

Ex. — This, these ; that, those ; few ; many. 

? One, first, second, etc. ; each, every, either, neither ; this, that, another ; 
much, all (the whole), whole (all the), — denote but one object or one ag- 
gregate. 

Ex. — " The first man." " The first ten men." "Every creature loves IT3 like.' ' 
"Neither combatant recovered from his wounds." 

? The numerals above one, (as two, three, etc.,) and these, those, all 
(number), few, several, many, divers, sundry, refer to more objects than one. 

? 233. Adjectives implying number, must agree in this respect 

with the substantives to which they relate. 

Ex.— "Four feet;" not, " Four foot." "That kind of trees," or, " Trees of 
that kind ;" not, M Those kind of trees." 



ProaioiBiisial aaid otSier definitive adjectives. 

All takes in the whole number spoken of, or the entire object or class. "All 
men." "All the years of man's life." "If all the year were playing holidays." 
u He is the best of them alV 

Any strongly denotes an indefinite object. It denotes it as opposed to a 
particular one or to none. "There is little honor in what any body can do." 
" Have you any foreigners in your county?" 

Both means the two. It is usually emphatic, implying not only the one, but 
the other also. "Both horses are lame." " His father and mother are both dead." 

Certain indefinitely describes what the speaker more definitely knows. "A 
certain man planted a vineyard." " I will not vote for a certain candidate." 

J}ivers=several or many + different. " Divers philosophers hold that the 
lips are part and parcel of the mind." — Shah. Ever so many different philoso- 
phers, etc. 

Each means both or all considered separately. It implies two or more. 
''Each one of the twins has a horse." u Each pupil must use his own books." 

Either means one or the other of two, but not both. Sometimes it de- 
notes the two in the sense of each, but with greater distinctness. "I will sell 
either one of my two horses." "Either road leads to town." " On either side 
they found impassable barriers." — Irving. That is, if they turned to one side, 
they found them there ; and if they turned to the other side, they also found 
them there. 

Either is sometimes applied to more than two, but with very questionable pro- 
priety. "Either or neither, applied to any number greater than one of two objects, 

7* 



154 ADJECTIVES. 

is a mere solecism,* and one of late introduction.^ — Harrison's English Language. 
" The pronominal adjectives either and neither, in strict propriety of syntax, relate 
to two only ; when more are referred to, any «a,nc\ none, or any one and no one, 
should be used in stead of them." — Goold Brown. The following sentence from 
Geo. P. Marsh, however, could hardly be improved : " Dryden, Pope, and Words- 
worth have not scrupled to lay a profane hand upon Chaucer, a mightier genius 
than either." 

Else excludes what is ascertained, from something indefinite. "What else ?" 
11 Any one else." " Who else have seen him?" 

Every means all considered separately. It implies several or many. "Every 
apple in the basket is frozen." " Pick up every one." 

Few denotes a comparatively small number. "Few shall part where many- 
meet." 

Former. See This and That. 

Latter. See This and That. 

Many denotes a comparatively large number. 

Many a means many considered separately. It differs from every, only in 
not denoting all. Many a is to many, as every is to all. " Many a man has 
been ruined by intemperance." 

Much denotes a comparatively large quantity. "Much money." 

Neither means not the one nor the other. It is opposed to each denoting 
two, or to either in this sense ; sometimes to both. "Each of yours is good, but 
neither of mine is." " Shall I take both, one, or neither f" 

No means not any, or not a, or it denies of all separately. Sometimes it de- 
nies a certain character of an object. "No man knows his destiny." " She is 
no friend of mine." "Even Sunday shines no Sabbath-day to me." — Pope. 

One may be applied indefinitely to any person or other object. 

One corresponds to another, when the meaning is not that there are but two ; 
one or the one, to the other of two. One=either of two ; the one=a particular 
one of two. "First came one daughter, and then another." "They marched one 
after another." " He went from one extreme to the other." One sometimes de- 
notes a person as not well known, or as of not much importance. Hence it is 
sometimes very contemptuous. "One Peter Simmons was the defendant." "An 
attack upon me by one Reid." — Benton. 

Other or another denotes something different or distinct from something 
else, yet of the same class or name. With allusion to something known or 
mentioned, it denotes something else. " An other overflow." " Take the other." 
" They are meant for us ; they can be meant for no other." — P. Henry. 

Own implies possession with emphasis or distinction. " My own." " Use 
your own book." " Our own Webster." 

Same means not another or not different. It denotes the identical object or 
a similar object. "It is the same boat that we saw an hour ago." "This 
church is built of the same stones as the other." 

Several denotes more than two and fewer than many. "Several boys." 

Some denotes one or a portion indefinitely. It is opposed to all, a particu- 
lar one, or the whole. "Some of the robbers were caught." "Some one said so." 
"Some of his money was stolen." When two indefinite portions are spoken of 
or are contrasted, some is often applied to one, and others to the other; when 
more than two are spoken of, some is generally used throughout. Sometimes 
others is used to continue the sentence after the first some. " Some of the men 
were without coats, and others without shoes." "Some of the pupils are indo- 
lent, some are mischievous, and some are stupid." 

* Errors of grammar are commonly called solecisms, from Soli, the name of a Grecian col- 
ony, noted for the misuse of their mother-tongue. ** The barbarism is an offence against 
etymology, the soletHs7ri against syntax, and the impropriety against lexicography." — 
CwnpbelVa Rhetoric 



ADJECTIVES. 155 

Such refers to an object as being of the same nature, character, or descrip- 
tion, as some thing else. " Modesty, meekness, and such virtues." "Such men 
as he is." ''Such principles as we approve." It is sometimes so used as to in- 
clude both the objects or classes to which the comparison relates. ' ; It is so 
used by such writers as Swift and Addison ;" i. e., by Swift and Addison, and 
other writers like them. Sometimes it denotes identity in stead of similarity, 
and is then generally in the way of a better expression. ''Such nouns as end in 
x assume es :" say, "The nouns which" &c. 

Sundry=dwers, but it is not quite so emphatic. " So teach sundry gram- 
marians. " — Brown. 

This (plu. these) strongly and distinctly points out something as near the 
speaker, in place or time. " This house and these fields, are they not yours ?" 
"This subject has been frequently discussed." 

That (plu. those) strongly and distinctly points out something as not near the 
speaker, or as not so near as something else. Hence, in speaking of two, that 
may be applied to the former, and this to the latter. "That cloud is exceedingly 
beautiful" " These roses will bloom longer than those. 11 " That question which 
we were yesterday discussing." 

"Some put the bliss in action, some in ease : 
Those call it pleasure ; and contentment, these. 11 — Pope. 

In such cases, former and latter, one and other, ones and others, may also fre- 
quently be used. Former and latter are the most obvious in their reference. 
" The cry of danger to the Union was raised to divert their assaults upon the Con- 
stitution. It was the latter, and not the former, that was in danger." — Benton. 
In the explanatory phrase "that is, 11 that often seems to be used in the sense of 
this. Sometimes that is simply more forcible than the. "That man who said so, 
is mistaken." " I trust I have none of that other spirit which would drag an- 
gels down. " — Webster. 

Very is nearly equivalent to a compound personal pronoun, or to the word 
even. " Our very existence depends upon it"=Our existence itself, etc. 

What and which, whether interrogative or responsive, and also their com- 
pounds, point out objects definitely, and sometimes indefinitely. "What man 
among you?" "Whatever motives govern him." "All persons ivhatsoever.' 1 
" What money he earned, she spent." "By which charter, certain rights were 
secured to us." 

Yon or yonder strongly points out something insight. "Yon hawthorn 
bush." "Yonder hills, robed in misty blue, were the haunts of my childhood." 



? 234. Since every quality or attribute must belong to some object, 
adjectives are said to belong to the substantives which they qualify or 
limit. 

• 235. When an adjective relates equally to two or more substan- 
tives, it should be parsed accordingly. 

Ex. — " The apples, peaes, and peaches, are ripe. 11 "A man of great sensibil- 
ity and genius." " That house and lot." "The cow and calf are white." " A 
white cow and cale." But, "A white cow and a calf," "A white cow and her calf," 
do not mean that the calf is white too. " He is a venerable old man." Here vene- 
rdble qualifies old man, rather than man only. 

i 236. When two or more adjectives come between an article and a 
plural noun, they sometimes qualify each only a part of what the noun 
denotes. 

Ex.—" The New and Old Testaments" =The New Testament and the Old Tes- 
tament ; not, The New Testaments and the Old Testaments. 



150 ADJECTIVES. 

? 237. An adjective is sometimes used without a substantive, to com- 
plete the sense of a preceding participle or infinitive. The adjective re- 
lates in sense to the object suggested by a previous possessive ; or else it 
relates indefinitely to some being, or to all beings whatsoever. 

Ex. — " To be good is to be happy." " These are the consequences of being too 
fond of glory." " His being rich was the cause of his ruin." " There is nothing 
lost by being careful." The phrase is equivalent to a noun, or to an adjective and 
noun : also, a noun that will preserve the sense, can generally be supplied. 
" Goodness is happiness" "These are the consequences of too much fondness for 
glory." " His riches were the cause of his ruin." " To he a good person, is, to be 
& happy person;" or, "To be good people, is, to be happy people" "These are 
the consequences of being a nation too fond of glory." " His being a rich young 
man, was the cause of his ruin." " There is nothing lost by being a careful person 
— by being careful persons." 

? A word that is usually an adjective, has sometimes the sense or mo- 
difications of a noun or a pronoun, and may then be parsed accordingly . 

Ex. — " Burke wrote on the deautiful and the sublime." " O'er the vast ab- 
rupt." — Milton. "We crossed the mighty deep." "In the dead of night." 
" Companion of the dead." — Campbell. " Children are afraid to go into the dark." 
"I prefer green to red." "The past, at least, is secure." — Webster. "These 
primitives have no derivatives." "Between the noble- s palace and the hut." 
" Where either'' s fall determines both their fates." " Every one must have heard 
of the tragical fate of Emmett." — Irving. 

? Such a word, when used as a noun, expresses the quality by a gen- 
eral reference to some or all objects possessing it ; or it sets forth some 
particular object or class as characterized by it. 

When an adverb is joined to such a word, the word must be parsed as an ad- 
jective, belonging to such a substantive understood as will make sense ; namely, 
thing, things, persons, people, place, style, one, ones, &c. : as, "The truly wise aire 
not avaricious ;" " How much have you got?" " Nearly all were captured;" " A 
fine instance of the truly sublime" better, — " of true sublimity." 

So, indeed, should every such word be parsed, when the word denoting the 
person or thing referred to, is obviously understood, or can be supplied without 
injuring the sense; as, " Of the apples he took the larger [ones] and left the 
smaller" [ones]. " Turn to the left" [hand or side]. It is generally better to parse 
the adjective as a substantive, only when it has so far usurped the character of one 
that the expression with the most suitable word supplied, would not exactly con- 
vey the same sense, or else would be tedious and clumsy. Many grammarians, 
though perhaps needlessly, parse as pronouns most of the definitive adjectives 
above described, when the modified substantive is omitted. Such parsing is ob- 
jectionable, furthermore, inasmuch as the words generally may be, and frequently 
are, modified by adverbs. 

When an adjective is used substantively, it is sometimes difficult to tell whether 
it should be parsed as a noun or as a pronoun. This will depend on whether the 
word is descriptive of a class, like a common noun, or is merely designative — 
belonging to the class called form-words, and applicable to objects that differ in 
kind. 

? An adjective sometimes becomes an adverb, without a change of form. 
Ex. — " I like it best." " Go, get you to my lady's chamber ; and tell her that 
if she paint an inch thick, yet to this favor will she come at last." — Shakespeare. 



ADJECTIVES.— EXERCISES. 157 

EXERCISES. 
Examples to be Analyzed and Parsed. 

Ihrse the adjectives: — 

1. 

*A dark cloud came over the city. The summer* breezes blow soft 10 

and cool 10 . The annual, autumnal, desolating 5 fires have almost destroyed 

this well-timbered country. Horses are as 13 valuable as 15 mules [are]. 

Homer was a greater 4 poet than Yirgil. Here the valleys are more 13 

beautiful, and the mountains [are] less 13 rugged 10 and more fertile. Then 

comes an elevated rolhng prairie country. The sweetest e flowers fringed 

the little stream. The river is highest in June. The cedars highest on the 

mountain, are the smallest [cedars]. The last blow was more fatal. The 

foremost horse is superior to the rest. 

2. 

Up 13 springs the lark, shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger 7 of morn. 
He treated poor f and rich alike. To be 1 poors i S more honorable 11 than to 
be dishonorably rich [is honorable]. 

The beautiful* fields and forests now in view, were very extensive 10 , 
and governed 11 by some Peruvian prince or princess. — Prescott. 

On the grassy bank stood a tall waving ash, sound to the very top. — 
Dickens. 

How brilliant and mirthful the light 1 of her eye, 
Like 10 a star 5 glancing 12 out 13 from the blue 5 of the sky ! — Whittier. 
There brighter suns dispense serener light, 
And milder moons imparadise the night. — Montgomery. 
Where smiling spring 1 its earliest visit 4 paid, 
And parting summer's lingering blooms 1 delayed. — Goldsmith. 

3. 
There are two j pear-trees in the second row. Any man can carry the 
whole limb with all its apples. Would any man defend infidelity by 
such or any other arguments ? No man is perfectly independent of all 
others 5 . There is a horse for each man. Many a fine intellect is buried 
in poverty. Neither course is proper. This chair is nearer to me than 
that 10 . Who else came ? One story is good until another 10 is told. Silver 
and gold have I none k . These resolutions reasserted the sole right of 
the colonies to tax themselves in all cases whatsoever 10 . 

* It may be well, when time allows it, for the pupil to descend, in parsing, according 

to our classification of adjectives : thus, adjective ; descriptive or definitive ; common 

proper, compound, pronominal, &c. ; distributive, demonstrative, &c. It may also be -well 

to say, in parsing some descriptive adjectives, "it can not be compared with propriety; 

and belongs," etc. 

(a.) " Summer" is an adjective, — a word * * * definitive, etc. (b.) "Desolating" is an 
adjective, — a word * * * participial, it is a participle ascribing * * * and belongs, etc. (c.) 

in the positive degree, it ascribes an equal degree of the quality ; and belongs, etc. 

(tf.) comparative degree, it ascribes the quality in a higher degree to one object as com- 
pared with another; and belongs, etc. (e.) in the superlative degree, it ascribes the 

quality, etc. (See definitions of the superlative degree.) (/.) and belongs to people un- 
derstood, according to Rule X. (g.) and belongs ta person or persons understood, ac- 
cording to Rule X. Or say, " and is here used without a substantive, according to Note 

X.'" (h.) and it belongs to the phrase "To be poor ," according to Rule X. (i.) and 

belongs to "fields and forests " according to Rule X. (j.) "Two" is an adjective * * * defini- 
tive * * * numeral * * * cardinal * * * and belongs, etc. (h.) " None" is here perhaps parsed 
best as an adjective belonging to " silver" and " gold," notwithstanding it can not be placed 
next to them. "We shall have none end." — Bacon. It is not essential that aa adjective 
must always be capable of standing next to its substantive. 



158 ADJECTIVES. EXERCISES. 



Examples to be Corrected. 

All the liabilities to error in regard to adjectives, may be reduced to the 
following heads : — 

1. Choice. 2. Number. 3. Comparison. 4. Position. 

1. Choice. 

1. In the use of adjectives, care should be taken to select the most ap- 
propriate for the meaning intended. 

2. Adverbs should not be unnecessarily used as adjectives. 

3. Them should not be used for those. 

Them boys are very idle. "What do you ask for them apples? Let some 
of them boys sit on them other benches. I have three horses, and you may 
ride either of them. Neither of my dozen razors is worth a cent. Further 
information may be obtained from either of the [eight] professors. Neither of 
the [six] hats is large enough for my head. None of the two pleases me. 
Any one of the two roads will take you to town. Tall pines grew on either 
side of the river. Each one of the thousand soldiers received a guinea. You 
may take e'er a one or ne'er a one, just as you please. That very point which 
we are now discussing, was lately decided in Kentucky. These very men with 
whom you traveled yesterday, are now in jail. There seems to be little glory 
in doing what every body can do. — any body — Memory and forecast just 
returns engage; this pointing back to youth, that on to age. — Pope. The 
whole school were at play ; some at marbles, others at ball, these at racing, 
those at jumping the rope, and some few at mumble-peg. (Use some, and lastly 
say, " and a few at mumble-peg") Such capers are unbefitting a man of his 
age. — unsuitable to — Such verbs as assume ed, are regular. Such persons 
as are unprovided, will please to apply at the office. All persons that are, &c. 

There are not less than fifteen banks in the city of New York that suspended 
to-day. I have caught less fish than you. A proper fraction is less than one, 
because it expresses less parts than it takes to make a unit. — D. P. Golburn. 
The summit of the hill was covered with stinted trees. (Say "stunted" for 
stinted is usually restricted to eating and drinking.) It all tends to show, that 
our whole plans had been discovered. The whole tends .... that all our, &c. We 
stand the last, and, if we fall, the latest experiment of self-government. His 
now wife is a cousin of his former wife. The then minister was unusually 
talented. Our bullets glanced harmlessly from the alligator's back. Open the 
door widely. We were all sitting quietly and comfortably round the fire. 
The shutters were painted greenly. We arrived safely, after all our misfortunes. 
This rose blooms most fairly. Velvet feels smoothly. I live freely from care. 
John reads too loudly, and James reads too lowly. (I. e., John is too loud, 
when .... James is too low in voice, when — ) Yet often touching will wear 
gold. — frequent— It is the often doing of a thing, that makes it a habit. 
He makes seldom mention of his relatives. He seldom mentions, &c. Motion 
upwards is more agreeable than motion downwards. Upward motion, &c. He 
made a soon and prosperous voyage. You jump too highly when you dance. 
The news of my marriage is a rumor merely. — a mere rumor. When a noun 
stands independently or absolutely of the rest of the sentence, it is in the nomi- 
native case. The relative should be placed as nearly as possible to its ante- 
cedent. A regularly and well-constructed sentence. The symptoms are two- 
fold, inwards and outwards. Apples are more plenty than peaches. — JK Webster. 



ADJECTIVES. — EXERCISES. 159 

2. Number. 

Adjectives implying number, must agree in this respect with the sub- 
stantives to which they bplong. 

a. The nouns which are not changed in form to express number, are sin- 
gular when they denote one object, and plural when they denote more. 

Tou have been playing this two hours. This oats, I fear, will never come 
up. G-ive him this memoranda. How do you like these sort of things? 
You will always see those kind of men sitting and loafering about taverns. 
— men of that kind — I never wear those sort of hoops. Take up this ashes. 
These molasses I bought yesterday. That tongs should be left in the kitchen. 
That victuals will last us to-day and to-morrow. We have not? much provi- 
sions for the journey. — not many provisions — or, not much provision — 
She was very extravagant in dressing, and by these means became poor. He 
was indolent and extravagant, and by that means became a pauper. He had 
no other thoughts than that of amassing money and hoarding it. There are no 
thoughts more painful than that of suspense and disappointment. If that be 
the facts of the case, he shall not escape from punishment. Every reasonable 
amends have been made. All reasonable amends, &c. 

3. Comparison. 

a. The mode of comparing, b. Double comparison, c. Adjectives that 
should not be compared, d. The terms denoting the objects compared. 

a. Adjectives should be compared in the best manner according to 
usage and euphony. 

It was the powerfullest speech I ever heard. I think the rose is the beauti 
fullest of flowers. Omar was the faithfullest of his followers. — Irving. The 
fox is the cunningest of animals. There are few bachelors soberer than he is. 
A cleverer man is not to be found. You are welcomer now than you were 
then. He is the awkwardest, backwardest fellow we have ever had. This 
is a reasonabler proposition than the other. By silence, many a dunderpate, 
like the owl, the stupidest of birds, comes to be considered the very type of wis- 
dom. — Irving. They unfortunately escaped to the insecurest places. I never 
was at a pleasanter party. This pink is more red than the other. Young 
folks never had a more merry time. This is the baddest accident that ever 
happened to us. The furthermost and the hindermost wagons are in the 
greatest danger. The upmost room was occupied by the gentlemen, and the 
lowermost by the ladies. He is a profoundest philosopher. (Observe that the 
idiom of our language allows us to say, " a most profound" but not, " a pro- 
foundest.") A clearer, more rapid and impetuous stream, flows from no other 
part of these mountains. A more clear, rapid, and impetuous, &c. The com- 
missioners selected the firmest, narrowest, and shallowest part of the river, for 
the bridge. 

b. Adjectives should not be doubly compared. 

More greater calamities yet await us. After the most strictest sect of our 
religion I lived a pharisee. The duke of Milan, and his more braver daughter. 
— Shakespeare. This was the most unkindest cut of all. How much are ye 
)etter than the fowls. There are few more politer men than he. The Most 
Highest shall judge between me and thee. Worser misfortunes yet await us. 
If he told that tale on me, he is the most meanest boy that ever was. I never 
heard a more truer saying. I think her less fairer than her sister. You came 
more earlier than I expected. A farmer's life is the most happiest of all. 



160 ADJECTIVES. EXERCISES. 

Those were the least happiest days of my life. The worst may become 
more worse. . — still worse. The most hindmost man was captured by the 
Indians. He was the most unluckiest of the speculators. The lesser quan- 
tity I remove to the other side of the equation. This was the most unwisest 
thing you could have done. She always dressed in the most costliest and finest 
silks. He fished at the most quiet and deepest place. — the deepest and most 
quiet place; or, — the most deep and quiet place. 

C. A word that usually has an absolute meaning, should never be used 
in a limited sense, unless the language does not afford a better expression 
for the intended meaning. 

His performance was the most perfect of all. — best — These artificial 
flowers are the most perfect I ever saw. (Perhaps allowable.) Yirtue confers 
supremest dignity on man, and should be his chiefest desire. — supreme .... 
chief desire. A more rectangular figure would hold more. A rectangular — 
or, A figure more nearly rectangular, &c. I would rather have a squarer box. 
The roundest pebbles are found on the extremest part of the sand-bar. The 
heath-peach is more preferable than the Indian-peach. The report was not so 
universally spread as was supposed. — not so generally or widely — The most 
universal customs are apt to last longest. He has a most spotless reputation. 
Cotton and sugar are most principally raised in the Southern States. — mostly 
raised — or, principally raised — Her insolence is most insufferable. — almost 
insufferable. Aristides was the least unjust of the Athenians. Angelina is 
the least imperfect of her sex. I trust the people are more uncorrupted than 
their leaders. — less corrupted — I hope they will be more undeceivable in 
future. The side of a hill is more ineligible for a house, than the summit. 

d. 1. The superlative must be used, when three or more are compared ; 
and the comparative is usually required, when but two are compared. 

The oldest of the two boys was sent to college. The youngest of the two 
sisters is the handsomest. He is the stouter of all the boys in our school. 
Which is the largest number, — the minuend or the subtrahend? Selim is the 
liveliest horse of the pair. The latter one of the three had forgotten his books. 
The house has but two stories, and the uppermost rooms are not yet finished. 
"Women are the weakest sex. Which can run the fastest, — your horse or mine ? 
His wife is the best manager ; therefore let her rule him. Of the two Latin 
poets, Virgil and Horace, the first is the most celebrated. A trochee has the 
former syllable accented, and the latter unaccented. 

2. The superlative degree represents the described objects as being a 
part of the others. 

3. All comparisons without the superlative degree, do not strictly rep- 
resent the objects denoted by one term, as being a part of those denoted 
by the other. 

a. The word other, and similar terms, imply two distinct parts, and but 
one kind or general class. 

That boy is the brightest of all his classmates. China has the greatest 
population of any nation on earth. Solomon was wiser than any of the an- 
cient kings. Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. Webster's 
spelling-book is the most popular of any yet published. Youth is the most 
important period of any in life. That grove is the shadiest and coolest place 
of any — of any others — of all others. Webster is one of the greatest orators 
of any country. — may well be ranked among the greatest orators of any country. 
Our grammar lessons are the hardest of any we have. This is a better-furnished. 



ADJECTIVES. — OBSERVATIONS. 161 

room than any in the house. This is the best-furnished room of any in the 
house. There is nothing so good for a sprain as cold water. — nothing 
else — He was less partial than any historian that ever wrote. — any other — 
It is a better treatise on this subjecTthan any that ever was written. (Ihe 
treatise could not be better than itself.) None of our magazines is so interest- 
ing to me as Harper's. No other one of, &c. Natural scenery pleases me the 
best of any thing else. Nothing pleases me so much as natural scenery. In 
no case is man so apt to act unjustly, as where his love or hatred interferes. 
Noah and his family outlived ali the people who lived before the flood. — N 
Webster. (They did not outlive themselves.) That tree overtops all the trees 
in the forest. 

Adam, the goodliest of men since born, 

His sons ; the fairest of her daughters, Eve. — Milton. 

4. Position. 

1. Adjectives should be placed where they will show clearly what 
word or words they are to qualify or limit. The sense is the best guide. 

a. Such an arrangement of words. should be avoided, as will make the 
adjective modify any other than its proper word. 

b. Of a series of coordinate adjectives that may be differently com- 
pared, it is generally more elegant to place the shorter ones before the 
longer. 

Remark. — A noun with its adjective may be limited or qualified by another 
adjective, and these again by another, and so on. In such cases, the adjectives 
denoting the more casual qualities, usually precede the others. u An old man ;" 
" A good old man ;" " A venerable good old man ;" " A stout venerable good old 
man;" " Two stout venerable good old men;" " The first two stout venerable 
good old men." 

The congregation will please to sing the three first and the two last stanzas 
of the hymn. The four first benches are reserved for pupils ; the others are 
for visitors.- The three last mails brought me no letter. I have just bought 
a new pair of gloves. — a pair of new gloves. This is an excellent tract of 
land. The heads of the horses were all adorned with ribbons. He is a very 
young tall man. All were drowned except the captain and other three offi- 
cers. If I be served such another trick, I'll have my brains taken out. — Shak. 
In a few more years, not even an Indian burial mound will be left untouched. 
The dress had a row of silk fancy green buttons, and strings of satin pink rib- 
bon. He is one of the most influential and richest men in the city. There is 
not a more fertile, fairer, and more delightful valley west of the Mississippi. 
The eagle soared above the mountain high. He is the apparent heir to the 
crown. The convent is surrounded by a fifteen feet high and a three feet thick 
wall. — a wall fifteen — A large reward and pardon will be offered to the 
informer. Pardon and a large reward, &c. 



OBSERVATIONS. 



All and whole are sometimes misapplied, one for the other ; and less is frequently 
misused for fewer. "The whole world"=All the world : but the plural phrases 
"All the apples," " The whole apples," are not equivalent ; all being opposed to 
a part of the number, and whole to a part of each object. "The bear received no 
less than six balls.". Say, " no fewer," or, "not fewer." Less is apt to suggest 
quantity, while fewer can suggest number only. Such phrases as u one or more per- 
sons" which Murray said should be u one person, or more than one," are now con- 



162 APJECTIVFP.— OBSERVATIONS. 

sidered allowable. " Every village or garrison has one or more scape-goats of this 
kind." — Irving. 

Much that we now consider erroneous English, is merely old English that was 
once in fashion and in good repute. Of this kind are such forms as " beautiful&r, 
powerfulest, vvrtuousest" " Benedict is not the unhope fullest husband that I know." 
— Shakespeare. 

Most adjectives may be taken either in an absolute or in a relative sense. In 
the former they suggest that the object has the quality in full, or, in what is usu- 
ally considered the full state ; in the latter, that it merely has of the quality. The 
latter sense must often be inferred from certain uses of the comparative or the 
superlative degree ; and when these degrees are not used, it is usually expressed 
by the ending ish, or by means of such limiting terms as somewhat, a little, partly, 
as — as, <fec. " My worst horse is better than your best, though neither one is really 
goody " I feel somewhat better to-day, though I am by no means well." "Sadder 
than the saddest night." — Byron. " Who canst the wisest wiser make, and babes 
as wise as they." — Gowper. "The poor man that loves Christ, is richer than the 
richest man that hates him." — Bunyan. " It is almost as thin as the thinnest pa- 
per." — Chambers. "And in the loivest deep a lower deep, still threatening to de- 
vour me, opens wide." — Milton. From these examples, which are all correct, we 
may infer that the comparative may sometimes be estimated from the superlative 
or the comparative ; and that these degrees may occasionally be considered equal 
to or even below the positive, as well as above it. 

1. The comparative may be estimated "from the positive taken in the full or ab- 
solute sense ; as, " Girard is rich, bat Astor is still richer." " The pipers loud and 
louder blew, the dancers quick and quicker flew." — Burns. 2. It may imply a pos- 
itive taken in a relative, or not in the full, sense ; as, " If you have but five dol- 
lars, you are richer than I am." "A fuller explanation ;" "A less thorough investi- 
gation ;" "A more perfect system ;" U A less perfect system." 3. Sometimes it is 
estimated from the comparative or the superlative ; as, " My kite rose higher, higher, 
higher, and higher, until it was highest, and far higher than the highest of all the 
other kites." 4. The comparative may be estimated from the positive of some other 
quality or state ; as, " He is more intelligent than rich. 11 " They are better clothed than 
fed." 5. Sometimes it seems to be estimated from the comparative of the opposite 
quality; as, " The wealthier citizens were disposed to make peace, but the poorer 
were not." " The higher classes are generally well educated, but the lower are 
not." 6. Sometimes it implies that the increase or decrease of one quality proceeds 
uniformly with that hi another; as, " The older the wine, the better it is." " The 
sooner, the better." 

1. Superlative estimated from the positive absolute ; as, "The bravest of the 
brave." 2. Superlative estimated from the positive taken in a relative or limited 
sense ; as, " The creek was too shallow for dipping with a bucket, even where it 
was deepest. 11 3. Superlative estimated from the comparative or the superlative ; 
as, "The ripest of the riper peaches were delicious." "The finest of the finest 
horses took the sweepstakes." (I think that the last two sentences are proper.) 

The superlative degree seems not always to imply an intervening comparative, 
but sometimes to be estimated directly from the positive of the same quality ; as, 
"The last years of his practice were more lucrative than the first." "The highest 
classes are generally rich and haughty " [but the lowest classes are poor and hum- 
ble]. " He sold the largest apples, and made the others into cider." In fact, this 
degree seems to be allowable in speaking of two, when the design is not so much 
to show that one is superior to the other, as to suggest that there is none above it 
or beyond it that is superior to it ; in other words, when we do not look back to 
the inferior objects, but rather look for superior objects and find none. " The 
farthest house on the peninsula is my residence," could be said if there were but 
two houses on the peninsula. "An iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and 
the last accented." "This refers to the nearest obiect; that, to something more 
distant." " His antagonist made the ablest speech, i. e., I heard none that was 
better. Sometimes, also, the comparative tends to suggest proportion. 

It is worthy of notice, that many qualities or attributes exist in more degrees, or 
in much greater variety, than the degrees of comparison can express. Other modes 
of expression are therefore often used to show degrees or varieties of the quality, 
and frequently with fine effect. "A light-green — dark-green — emerald-gresn — 
pea-green color." "Pink red, crimson red, saffron red, strawberry red, blueish red 



ADJECTIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 163 

(—purple)." "Boiling hot, stark mad, stone dead, dead drunk." "She is most 
beautiful — incomporably beautiful — angelic. 11 " She appeared in a snow- white dress, 
and a rich saffron-colored shawl." Poets take greater liberty, in the use of adjec- 
tives, than is allowed to prose writers ; as, "lhat heavenliest hour 'of Heaven is 
worthiest thee!" — Byron. "And you shall see who has the proper est notion." 
— Id. "A foot more light, a step more true. 11 — Scott. Perhaps in light literature, 
such expressions as the following are quite proper : " Her husband was none of 
the soberest. 11 — Dickens. " None of the most sober" would here, I think, sound 
rather stiff and affected. More and most are sometimes preferred in prose, for 
greater emphasis, or to express the degree of a shorter and a longer adjective in 
the briefest uniform manner ; as, " He is more bold and active, 11 for, " He is bolder 
and more active. 11 " She is a most bright, polished, and amiable young lady." 
Most is usually required after a or an, or to express the superlative of eminence ; 
as, "A most polite gentleman;" "A most queer sight." Such adjectives ^per- 
fect, round, extreme, correct, blind, and still, are sometimes compared when not 
used in their full sense. " More perfect" =*nearer to perfection; " most perfect"^ 
nearest to perfection: both implying less than perfect. It has been well argued, 
that if " greater perfection 11 is an allowable phrase, why should not u more perfect 11 
be allowable. To say, " She is the least imperfect of her sex," would imply that 
the whole sex is quite imperfect. " Aristides was the least unjust of the Athe- 
nians," is as much as to say, " The Athenians were all unjust, — a set of knaves, of 
whom Aristides was only not the worst one." The adjectives should have been 
"most perfect," "most just." Such expressions as "the most unconquerable," 
" the less imperfect," "the least imperfect," " the more unnecessary," " the most 
unbecoming," " the most unnatural," " most uncertain," "a most superior," "a 
most inferior," " the most blameless," "the most worthless," "a fuller," "the 
most complete," "the completest," "a most thorough," "the straightest," "a 
straighter," " a more reddish," " a less yellowish," &c, are all, in certain cases, 
allowable. 

Many, more, most, have for their orjposites few, fewer , fewest ; much, more, most, 
have little, less, least; great, greater, greatest, have little, small, smaller, lesser 
(implying dignity), smallest, least. Lesser should generally be rejected ; though it 
is sometimes used, by good writers, in opposition to greater. Also the phrase 
" Lesser Asia," is sometimes used for the more elegant phrase "Asia Minor." 
Worse is itself a comparative, therefore worser must be a double comparative, 
which is improper. So is "most happiest," for instance, a double superlative, 
and therefore improper. Adjectives should not even seem to be doubly compared ; 
thus, " A more elegant and simpler method," might be supposed to mean, "A 
more elegant and more simpler method." It should be, "A simpler and more ele- 
gant method," or, " A more simple and elegant method." 

"A tobacco-seed is the least of any other seed — of all other seeds — of any seed 
— less than any seed ;" "There is no seed so small as a tobacco-seed." That is, a 
tobacco -seed is a seed of some other kind of seed, or it is smaller than itself — ab- 
surdities. " The weakest of the two." That is, one is weaker than the other ; 
therefore say, " The weaker of the two." 

"An old pair of shoes." The meaning is not that the pair is old, but that the 
shoes are old; hence say, "A pair of old shoes." There are some ambiguities in 
regard to adjectives, that must be left to the discernment of common sense, for 
they can not be well avoided unless we use the hyphen ; and this mark would gen- 
erally make the expressions too uncouth. Said a gentleman to a lady, " That is a 
beautiful child's cap;" and she replied, "If it is not bought for an ugly one." 
" Large Bread Bakery." Is the bread large, or the bakery? " Cincinnati Boys' 
School." A critical wag said, that only the boys belonging to Cincinnati could at- 
tend the school. " A child's beautiful cap," seems affected, and may imply that 
every child has also an ugly c&p; though we must say, " A child's black cap." 
When I say, "Five thousand two hundred and thirty-five dollars," each small nu- 
meral relates to the larger next to it, and the entire phrase to the noun ; and when 
I say, "That distinguished venerable old man," each adjective modifies all that 
follows it : hence an adjective may relate either to the next word or to the next 
two or more words. " The American Artificial Teeth Company." And even, " I 
have just bought a fine suit of clothes," is perhaps allowable ; for fine may relate 
to the fit, correspondence, and cloth. "A fine collection of gems." — Macaulay. 

When such words as first and last are used with plural numerals, the sense 



164 VERBS. 

usually requires them before the plurals ; as, " The first three," " The last four ;" 
not, "The three first," " The four last." So. "The first six men," " The last 
two men," "The last ten rows," even if there should not be enough for twice the 
number, or for "A last six," "A first two," "A first ten." But usage, or the 
state of things, may sometimes allow a different arrangement ; for instance, it 
would certainly be correct to say, " The four first trees of the four rows." If " The 
first six French kings," should suggest the idea of six kings ruling at once, I would 
rather say, " The six first French kings ;" but, if this phrase should express the 
meaning no better than the other, I would prefer the other. We usually say, 
" For the next five years," " The last two out of three," "The best six out of 
eleven;" and not, " For the five next years," " The two last," &c. But we say, 
" The two hindmost wheels ;" for one is as far back as the other. " The two fore- 
most horses," is also correct. We would hardly say, " The laziest two boys," but, 
" The two laziest boys ;" for the former phrase would suggest that they are in some 
way united as a pair, which is not our meaning. 

In favor of "The first two — three — five," " The last four — six," &c, may be 
nrged — 1. Analogy: we always say, in speaking of large numbers, "The first 
twenty — last twenty," &c. ; not, "The twenty first — thirty last;" we afeo say, 
"The next five." *2. Authority: grammarians, and good writers generally, give 
this form the preference. Against: The expressions may suggest that the entire 
number is divided into at least two such groups, which may be neither true nor 
possible ; as, " The first four acts of the play." (The whole play having but five 
acts.) In favor of " The two first," " The last four," &c, may be ur^ed — 1. That 
they avoid the grouping ; 2. That many good writers not unfrequently use them. 
Against : That the phraseology is apt to suggest, that there can be more firsts or 
lasts than one when this is not strictly true. In short, all other things being equal, „ 
I should prefer the first form given above ; but, if the latter would express my 
meaning better, I should not hesitate to use it. The German language, I believe, 
favors the latter form. 

Adjectives may either precede or follow the substantives, but their position has 
sometimes a great influence on the energy of the sentence ; as, "Excellent as the 
present version of the Bible is, still we believe," &c. "Great is Diana of the Ephe- 
sians." "Bright flashed the clouds, and loud the thunder rolled." "Young she 
was, and rich, and beautiful." "Sublime on radiant spheres he trod." " It was a 
clear morning, bright and balmy." " So that our whole company, young and old, 
rotten and sound, did not amount to more than fifty men." " The scattered clouds 
tumultuous rove." "The interminable sky sublimer swells." "Goodness in- 
finite." "Woe unutterable.'''' "She was a woman heartless, talented, and ambi- 
tious." "Sagacious in policy and prompt in action, his whole life was a brilliant 
career." Observe that the adjective, preceded by the and not followed by a 
noun, sometimes denotes persons, and sometimes the abstract quality ; as, " The 
humorous may please us more than the witty." This may mean, " The humorous 
man, or humorous people in general, may please," &c. ; or, " Humor may please 
us better than wit." 

An adjective immediately preceding two or more nouns in the same construc- 
tion, is usually understood as qualifying them all; hence, " His luncheon was a 
small biscuit and cheese," was perhaps meant for, " His luncheon was cheese and 
a small biscuit." 

8. VERBS. 

? 238. A verb is a word used to affirm something of a 
subject. 

? 239. The verb is the part of speech whose chief use is, to make the 
predicates of propositions. Almost every verb denotes some kind of ac- 
tion or state. And affirmations, with grammarians, mean all kinds of 
assertions; also commands and questions. 

Ex. — " The horse ran up the street." "The thunder rolls." "Sweet blooms 
the rose." " Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed by fire from heaven." " Troy 
was, but is no more." " Fairies are beings of the fancy." " The clouds jMrting, 



VERBS. CLASSES. 165 

the moon shone through." " Some are born to creepy " I saw her weeping.' 1 '' " He 
did not order the carriage to he sent away." " I said, Go ; and he went." " Who 
would not fowe resisted, if he Mc£ fo^tt thus attacked t " 

The essential or chief characteristic of the verb is, to predicate, or to s#y some- 
thing of something ; and hence the Germans call it the say-word. 

? 240. The verb be, then, when used affirmatively, to bind together a subject 
and an attribute, must be the purest and greatest or fundamental verb. If I 
say, " God love," "The world beautiful," the words are lifeless; but the mo- 
ment is is inserted, it indicates at once the presence of an observing and rational 
being, animates the lifeless parts, and a thought, judgment, or truth, is born I 
" God is love." " The world is beautiful." 

? 241. The verb be, when used to bind together the subject and 

its attribute into a proposition, is called the copula. 

As we can not well conceive an abstract relation between two objects, without 
adding to it something else belonging to them, or forming a complex idea, most 
verbs comprise the sense of the verb oe, and something additional, that is, some 
kind of action or state. 

When a verb is actually used to express affirmation, it is called a finite verb ; 
but there are two forms of the verb which do not express affirmations, and are 
called the participle and the infinitive. For we may also conceive an act or state 
abstractly, or else without predicating it. And it is chiefly by means of these 
two forms, or parts, that the verb passes out into other parts of speech ; that is, 
not only retains, to some extent, the nature of a verb, but also participates that 
of an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. 

? 242. The participle is generally an inflected form of the 

verb, construed like an adjective, and expressing no affirmation. 

Ex. — " I saw the oak white with snow ;" "I saw the oak riven by a thunder- 
bolt." " The grass is green ;" " The grass is growing." 

? 243. The infinitive is a form of the verb beginning gen- 
erally with to, and expressing no affirmation. 

Ex. — " The farm is to oe sold." " The jailor is supposed to have let the prisoner 
[to] escape" 



Classes. 

Verbs are classified, according to their form, and their construction in sen- 
tences, — 

? Into regular and irregular. 

? Into transitive and intransitive ; and the transitive verbs are 

often used as passive, and some of the intransitive are always neuter. 

? 244. A regular verb takes the ending ed to form its pre- 
terit and its perfect participle. 

Ex. — "Plant, planted, planted ; carry, carried, carried; rebel, rebelled, rebelled. 

? 245. An irregular verb does not take the ending ed, to 
form its preterit and its perfect participle. See pp. 13-16. 
Ex. — "Sweep, swept, swept; cling, clung, clung ; cut, cut, cut. 

? The principal parts of a verb are the present, or the simplest form 
as registered in a dictionary ; the preterit, or the simplest form of the past 
indicative ; and the perfect participle, or the form that will make sense 



166 VERBS. CLASSES. 

with the word having or being before it. To these may be added the 
present participle, which, as it ends always in ing, is too well known to 
need mentioning. 

? By means of these parts and the auxiliary verbs, all the other 
parts of verbs are formed. 

The present, if traced back in dictionaries, is the present infinitive or the present indica- 
tive form ; but it would perhaps be as well to consider it the present imperative. 

The irregular verbs are the oldest, and perhaps the heart of the language. 
Regular verbs never become irregular, except that ed is sometimes shortened 
into t. 

Irregular verbs sometimes become regular. 

AH newly made verbs brought into the language, assume the regular ending. 

? 246. A prefix, joined to a verb, does not change the form of the 

principal parts. 

Ex. — " Go, undergo, underwent, undergone; give, misgive, forgive', do, undo; 
hold, withhold; act, counteract; say, gainsay. ^Exception: Welcome. 



? 247. A transitive verb has an object, or requires one to 

complete the sense. 

Ex. — " The lightning struck the oak." " Whom did you see ?" " The garden 
has flowers.' 7 "I knew him well, and every truant 'knew.'' 1 "Avoid Giving of- 
fense." " I dislike to do it." "He commanded | the soldier to be brought." "I 
know | how deeply liberty is rooted in the hearts of these people." 

? 248. A passive verb is a transitive verb so used that it repre- 
sents its subject as acted upon, or has the object for its subject. 

Ex. — " James killed a snake; "A snake was killed by James." " I will plant 
a cedar over her grave ;" U A cedar shall be planted over her grave." 

? 249. An intransitive verb does not require an object to com- 
plete the sense. 

Ex. — "Birds ■fly. 1 '' " Eoses bloom.'' 1 " Martha learns fast." "Acquire in youth, 
that you may enjoy in age." " Gamblers cheat" 

? 250. A neuter verb is an intransitive verb that does not im- 
ply action or exertion. 

Ex. — " The ocean is deep." "The book lies on the table." "Here sleep the 
brave." Since existence is a more general idea than action or motion, the neuter 
verbs, though few in number, range farther than all the active verbs. 

? 251. The same word is sometimes used as a transitive, and 

sometimes as an intransitive, verb. 

Ex. — "The prince succeeds the kinq ;" "In every undertaking he succeeds." 
" To set trees in a row ;" " The sun sets. 

? 252. A verb usually transitive, sometimes becomes intransitive. 
The intention, in such cases, is to ascribe simply a certain act or 
state, and to leave the object designedly unknown or indefinite : the 
mind dwells upon the act, rather than upon the object affected by it. 

Ex. — " She reads well." " He studies in the morning, and rides in the evening." 
"I keep his house, and I wash, wring, brew, bake, scour, dress meat, and make the 
beds, and do all myself." — Shakespeare. 

? 253. A verb usually intransitive, sometimes becomes transitive. 



VERBS. PROPERTIES. VOICES. 16V 

This occurs, when the verb is used in a causative sense ; when the 

object is like the verb in meaning ; and in certain poetic expressions. 

Ex. — " To march armies ;" i. e., to cause them to march. "To live a righteous 
life." "To die a miserable death." "To How a louder blast." "To look daggers." 
(See also Rule VI.) "Eyes looked love — looked pity." "Death grinned a ghastly 
smile." "The lightnings flashed a brighter curve." "The streams ran nectar." 
In many such instances, the verb shows how the object 13 expressed or made ; 
or else the object characterizes the verb. 

? From some intransitive verbs are derived corresponding transi- 
tive verbs. 

Ex. — Lie, lay; sit, set, seat ; fall, fell; rise, raise; drink, drench. 

? 254. Sometimes the object is combined with the verb so closely 

as to make in sense almost a part of it; and sometimes the object is 

identical with the subject, merely completes the sense, and implies 

no transfer of the act. 

Ex. — " To take care of ; to lose sight of; to lay hold of." "To bestir oneself; 
to bethink oneself; to conduct oneself well ; to feign oneself sick ; to laugh oneself 
hoarse ;" " He slept himself wear y ;" " He drank himself dead drunk." 



Properties. 

? Verbs have voices, snoods, tenses, persons, and 
numbers. 

Voices, in general, relate to action ; moods, to reality ; tenses, to time ; and per- 
sons and numbers show the nominative, where ver in the sentence it may be. 



Voices. 

The voices are rather absorbed in the foregoing classification of verbs ; yet, considering the lm 
portance of the subject, and its treatment in the grammars of other languages, I have retained them. 

? The voices are two modes of expressing transitive verbs. 

? They are called the active voice and the passive. 

? 255. The active voice represents the subject as acting, or 

the verb as relating to an object. 

Ex. — "The laborers gather corn." " The frost broke the pitcher." " The girls 
are learning their lessons." "John resembles his father." "The honse has a 
portico." 

? 256. The passive voice represents the subject as acted upon, 
or the verb as having the object for its subject. 

Ex. — " The pitcher was broken." "Many hogs are driven to market." " The 
bridge is building." "To be ridiculed is unpleasant." 

? 257. Transitive verbs may sometimes be used as passive verbs, 

even in the active form. Such verbs often denote, not so much the 

receiving of the act, as the capacity to receive it in a certain way. 

Ex. — " This timber saws well." " Sycamore splits badly." " This field ploughs 
well." " Linen wears better than cotton." " Your poem reads smoothly." 
" Wheat sells — is selling — is sold for a dollar a bushel." " I could easily see what 
was doing on the other side of the river." "Virgil describes some spirits as 
bleaching in the winds, others as cleansing under great falls of water, and others as 
purging in fire, to recover the primitive beauty and purity of their nature."— Ad- 



168 VERBS. — MOODS. 



"Be assured he has an ax to grind.' 1 '' "There is no work to do." Such 
infinitive expressions, however, may be considered elliptical ; as, " There is no 
work [for us] to do." 

? 258. The present participle, when not combined with any 

other verbal form, is generally active ; and the perfect participle, 

passive. 

Ex. — " Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a soldier lay, 

Torn with shot, and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his life away." 

Whittier* 

? 259. A few intransitive verbs are sometimes used in a passive 
form. This is a French idiom ; and the verbs are not passive. 

Ex. — "He is f alien." "She is gone." "The melancholy days are come." 
Equivalent to has fallen, has gone, have come ; but, " John is struck," is not the 
same as, " John has struck." The passive form seems to differ from the active, by 
an elegant shade of meaning : in the former, the mind dwells rather on the stale 
of things after the act ; in the latter, on the act itself. 

? 260. A few intransitive verbs may be made passive, when their 
meaning is combined with a following preposition or other word. Such 
a verb with the modification may be termed a corn-pound passive verb. 

Ex. — " Col. Butler was accordingly written to, and ordered to hasten forward 
with the volunteers." — Irving. "Had Monmouth really been sent for to the 
Hague ?" — Macaulay. "An honest man will be well thought of, and looked up to." 
"If you wear such a coat, you will be laughed at" ^ridiculed. " He was smiled on 
by fortune" ^favored. " He was justly dealt wW= treated. " My claim was' lost 
sight of." The modification is so closely combined in sense with the verb, that it 
seems to make a part of it. 

? 261. Hence we see that the object of the active verb, sometimes 
that of the preposition, is made the subject of the passive verb. 

But when the object of the preposition or that of the infinitive is made the sub- 
ject, the expression is sometimes too inelegant to be allowed. " Weights and mea- 
sures were now attempted to be established." — Carlyle. 

? 262. Transitive verbs may be used, at pleasure, either actively or passively. 
By having both forms, language is enriched in variety of expression. The act- 
ive voice, however, sets forth chiefly the doer with the kind of action performed 
by him ; the passive voice, the object with the kind of action affecting it, and 
also enables us to avoid changing the subject. The active can be used without 
the object, the passive without the agent ; each of which it is sometimes not 
possible, not important, or not desirable, to mention. 

Ex. — "Washington defended owe country;" "Our country was defended by 
Washington." " Bascom preached in Kentucky, and Campbell disputed in Vir- 
ginia?" (Who did ? and did what?) " The work was done, notwithstanding he 
refused to touch it." " I went to the river, was ferried over, and saw the proces- 
sion." "My motives were slandered." "The ship was stranded." 



Moods. 

? The moods are certain modes of expressing the verb in 
regard to its subject. 

? There are five moods ; the indicative, the subjunctive, the po- 
tential, the imperative, and the infinitive. 



VERBS. MOODS. 169 

? 263. The indicative mood affirms something as an actual 
occurrence or fact. 

Ex.— " Columbus discovered America." " The bank has failed:'' " The trees 
are budding." " The peaches will be ripe." " If the bank has failed." " If the 
peaches shall be ripe." "Are you sick f° " Who never fasts, no banquet e'er en- 
joys." " Then, if thou falVst, thou falVst a blessed martyr." 

A proposition, having a verb in the indicative mood, may be declarative, inter- 
rogative, or negative. It may also express a condition or an inference ; for what is 
not known as being actually in existence, may nevertheless be assumed as matter 
of fact. 



? 264. The subjunctive mood affirms something as a future 

contingency, or as a mere supposition, wish, or conclusion. See p. 175. 

Ex. — "If he be studious, he will excel." "If he were studious, he would ex- 
cel." " If he had been studious, he would have excelled." " If you be rich" — 
a condition not improbable. " If you were rich" — a supposition without fact. " 0, 
that you were rich" — a mere wish, f Though he deceive me, yet will I trust in 
him." It is not certain that he will deceive me. " Till the owner present himself, 
I will keep it." I do not think it certain that he will. " Except ye be born again, 
ye can not enter the kingdom of heaven." Ye may be born again, or ye may not. 
" Beware, lest thou be led into temptation." There is not a certainty, yet a liabil- 
ity. So, "See that no one go astray — be forgotten." u If a common bottle ivere 
filled with water, and plunged under the oil until it reached .... it would remain," 
<fec. — Dr. Arnot. It may be done, or it may not ; the actual occurrence is not de- 
nied. " The wicked sometimes conduct themselves in such a manner as if they 
expected no punishment for their sins." — Addison. They may expect it, or they 
may not; the author does not positively deny that they do. "If all knew their 
duty, and appreciated their responsibilities, there would be less calamity in the 
world." — Dr. Shannon. The author denies that they do. " O, that I were as when 
my mother pressed me to her bosom, and sung the warlike deeds of the Mo- 
hawks." But I am not. "Had I heard of the affair sooner, this accident had not 
happened." But I did not, and it happened. " I had rather pay [infinitive] the 
deot at once, than be his security." An ideal view : it is not said that I do pay. 
(" I had [subjunctive'] rather [to] have lost [infinitive] my money, than my manu- 
script," is not elegant English, though perhaps hardly incorrect.) " Were it so, 
I would consent." A mere supposition. " It were useless," &c. "It had been use- 
less," <fec. A mere conclusion. " If it rains," is indicative, and implies that the 
speaker does not know whether it is now actually raining or not. "If it rain" is 
subjunctive, and implies that the speaker does not know whether it will rain or not. 
"If it was raining ," is indicative, referring to a past fact, and implies that the 
speaker does not know whether it did actually rain or not. " If it were raining," is 
subjunctive, referring to a present act denied, and implies that the speaker is merely 
supposing a case. "If this is treason, make the most of it," is indicative, and de- 
cides the matter now, or supposes it decided. " If this be treason, make the most of 
it," is subjunctive, and refers the matter to future decision or judicial investigation. 

? The subjunctive mood has three tenses: the present, the past or 
aorist (= indefinite), and the pluperfect ; generally equivalent in time to a 
future, a present, and a past tense, — tenses sufficient, yet needed, for all 
the purposes of this mood. See pp. 20 and 26. 

? It remains almost entirely unchanged throughout the same tense, and shows 
its peculiarity of form chiefly in the verb be. See p. 26. 

265. In its form, it is most like the indicative mood; in sense, more like the 
potential, with which it is also most frequently associated, and into which it may 
often be converted. See above, also pp. 25-26. 

When a verb in this mood refers to past or present time, it generally, but not 
always, implies a denial of the fact ; when to future time, that the fact is un- 
certain or contingent. See the examples above. 

8 



170 VERBS. MOODS. 

? 266. To a verb in this mood, some auxiliary verb — shall, will, may, 
should — may in most instances be understood, without materially varying 
the sense; provided the auxiliary be conceived as expressing time, or con- 
tingence, and not resolution, necessity, obligation, &c. 

Ex. — " If he he at home, I shall go to see him"=If he shall he at home, &c. 
" If thou ever return, thou shouldst be thankful" ==If thou shouldst ever return 
&c. "Beware that thou come not to poverty;" i.e., that thou mayst not come to 
poverty. 

? 267 A verb in the subjunctive mood generally has, or may have, if, 
though, unless, except, ivhether, that, till, or some equivalent word before 
it. The clause perhaps always implies another, expressed or understood ; 
and hence the mood is called subjunctive, which means joined to. 

It should not be supposed, however, that these preceding words produce the mood, or 
change the form of the verb. It is rather the state of mind, under which the verb is set 
forth, that produces the mood, and requires or allows the conditional word before it. 



? 268. The potential mood affirms merely the power, liberty, 
liability, necessity, will, duty, or some other relation of the subject 
to the act or state. 

Ex. — " It may rain?' 1 " You can go — could go — must go — should go — would go — 
might go." " I would go with you, if I could spare the time." " When John Gilpin 
rides again, may I he there to see." 

When an act or state is expressed in this mood, it may take place, or not. It is 
not the business of the mood to show whether it does or not, hut merely what re- 
lation the subject bears to it. 

? 269. To express this mood, we combine with the verb — the infinitive 
form without the sign to — the word may, can, must, might, could, would, 
or should, and sometimes perhaps shall in the sense of must, or will in 
the sense of would or to be willing. 

This mood is, in fact, composite ; its forms being composed of indicative and infinitive, 
of subjunctive and infinitive, or of imperative and infinitive, elements. The sign to of the 
infinitive being omitted in combination. Indie, -{-infin.: "I knew he could \ learn it;" 
"He ivould | go then ;" " We must | endure it ;" " I can \ pay him." Subjunc. -f infin. : 
"She could \ sing if she would;" "I 'might | learn the lesson;' 1 "I should | hardly believe 
you even then ;" "I might \ have written to him, had I known it;" " Study, that you may \ 
learn.'" Imper. -f- infin. : "May you | prosper ;" "May it | please your honors. 11 When the 
auxiliary element adheres to the time usually given to its tense, it is indicative ; but when 
it does not, or, like subjunUves, moves forward in time, or becomes indefinite in time, it is 
subjunctive. 

? 270. The i an per alive mood expresses command, exhorta- 
tion, entreaty, or permission. 

Ex. — " Charge, Chester, charge!" "2?o nothing that your heart tells you is 
wrong." "Do come to see us." "Depart in peace." 

The act or state may or may not take place. If it takes place, it must be 
after the command itself, which is always expressed in present time, or in what 
is considered so at the time referred to. As we always speak to some person 
or thing when we command, this mood has the second person only; and the 
subject of the verb is thou, you, or ye, which is nearly always understood. But 
sometimes this mood is used in other persons or in the perfect tense. 

Ex. — "Have done thy charms, thou hateful, withered hag." — Shakespeare. 
11 Somebody call my wife."— Id. "This mortal house I'll ruin, do Caesar what he 
can." — Id. "Laugh those who can, weep those who may." — Scott. " ' Now tread 
we a measure !' said young Lochinvar." — Id. (Now let us tread, etc.) "Fall he 
that must, beneath his rival's arms." — Pope. " Whoever comes this way — behold 
and tremble." — Pollok. "Be it this day enacted." "Be it so." — Webster. "Perish 
my name, and perish my memory, provided Switzerland may be free." — TelL 



VERBS. TENSES. l7l 

" Kuin seize thee, ruthless king ; confusion on thy banners wait." — Gray. Whether 
such verbs as some of the last should be parsed as imperative, or as potential having 
may understood, it is not always easy to decide. Perhaps it is best to parse them 
as imperatives expressing a mingled wish and command. The speaker commands in 
what he proposes to bear a part himself; or he commands, so far as he can, what 
is absent, inanimate, unknown to him, or not under his absolute control. The ex- 
pressions are all rather poetical or rhetorical. 

? 271. The imperative mood is sometimes used when there is but a 
slight or no reference to a person addressed, to express more modestly 
the intention or will of the speaker. 

Ex. — God said, "Let there be light." "Alloio me to congratulate you." 



? 272. The infiailtive mood expresses the act or state with- 
out affirming it. It comprises the participle and the infinitive. 

Ex. — To slay; to have slain; to be slain ; to have been slain. Slaying ; having 
slain ; being slain ; having been slain. "Having spoken, he arose." "He arose 
speaking." "He arose to speak." " The deer, having seen me, tried to escape." 

" The infinitive mode so called is the crude-form of the verb. It is the verb di- 
vested of all modality. It is no mode at all." — J. W. Gibbs. Again, " The infini- 
tive and participle have no claim to be considered as modes. They are particip- 
ials." — Id, And, "Under the general name of participial we include the parti- 
ciples, the infinitive mode, the gerund, and the supine." — Id. 

The folloAving reasons why I have classed participles and infinitives together, must 
suffice : 1. They are both without affirmation. 2. They are similarly combined with the 
auxiliary verbs to form the compound tenses. 3. They may both be used as substantives. 
4. They are sometimes interchangeable. 5. They both express time relatively, and not, like 
finite verbs, absolutely. 6. The infinitive sometimes supplies the place of a future participle. 
7. Other languages sometimes use one form where we would use the other. 8. The remarks 
of eminent grammarians and scholars, on the subject. See Kuhner, Whately, Anthon, 
Becker. 

? 273. Almost the same sense may sometimes be expressed by a dif- 
ferent mood. 

Ex. — '" I came that I might assist you — to assist you." "May you always Jove 
virtue ;" u Do always love virtue." " You will not hurt him ?" " Do not hurt him," 
Mild imperatives. " It would be useless ;" " It were useless." "Deny us pleasure, 
and you unfit us for business ;" "If you deny us," etc. Emphatic condition. 

Should the subjunctive mood ever disappear entirely from our language, then 

the best classification of moods will be into three ; the indicative, the imperative, 

and the infinitive. 

» ■ > 

Tense§. 

?The teaises are the forms and meanings of the verb in regard 
to time. 

? There are six tenses; the present, the past, the future, the per- 
fect, the pluperfect, and the future-perfect. 

Time may be divided into present, past, and future. Present time, strictly 
speaking, can denote but a moment of duration ; yet longer periods, extending 
into both the future and the past, are often considered present ; as when we say, 
this day, this week, this year, this century, in our lifetime. Past time begins from 
the present, and extends back as far as our thoughts can wander ; future time be- 
gins from the same point, and goes forward to a similar extent. In each of these 
periods, an act may be considered as merely occurring or continuing, or as com- 
pleted or ended, — thus making six tenses. To each period belongs also a sort of 
future tense, expressed by about and the infinitive, and sometimes called the peri- 
phrastic future ; as, "I was about to study." But the following — to be read betb 
down and across the page — may be more intelligible to the learner :— > 



172 VERBS. — -TENSES. 

FRESENT. PAST. FUTDBE. 

I write I wrote I shall write 

I have written 1 had written I shall have written 

I am about to write I was about to write I shall be about to write 

I am writing I was writing I shall be writing 

I have been writing I had been writing I shall have been writing. 



It seems best to define the tenses according to their forms, and in every mood. 

? 274. The present i indicative denotes what now exists, or 

is going on. 

Ex. — " This is a warm day." " The grass is growing in the meadow." 

? What is now habitual or customary. 

Ex. — " He chews tobacco." " People go to church on Sunday." 

? Universal truths. 

Ex. — "Heat melts snow." " Virtue produces happiness." "Drunkards sel- 
dom reform.'''' 

? Past or future transactions with greater vividness or certainty. 

Ex. — " The combat deepens. On, ye brave !" " Do this, and thou diest /" 

? Future events, in connection with words that carry the scene 

into future time. Generally after relatives, when, as soon as, &c. 
Ex. — " When he comes, I will go." " Catch whatever comes. 11 
? The actions or qualities of authors as observed in their works 

now existing. 

Ex. — " Seneca reasons and moralizes well." " Milton is sublime." 

? 275. The present subjunctive implies future time. 
Ex. — "If it ram, our flowers will live." Physical. "If this oe true." Mental. 

? 276. The present potential is present or future in regard to 
both the mood and the act or state. 

Ex. — " He may \ oe cominy." " I can \ pay you next Christmas." 

? 277. The present imperative is present in regard to the 

mood, and future in regard to the act or state. 

Ex. — il 'Return soon." "Pour out the rich juices still bright with the sun." 
u I said, Go." So vivid is this mood, that it can easily and readily set forth a 
scene as present in any period of time. 

? 278. The present participle denotes continuance of the act 
or state, at the time referred to. 

Ex. — "Before us lay the lake glittering in the sun." 

? 279. The present infinitive denotes simply the act or state, 
or as present or future at the time referred to. 

Ex. — "A lesson hard to learn.'''' " She seems to sleep." " I intended to say less." 

? 280. The past indicative denotes simply what occurred in 
past time. 

Ex. — " He was fishing when I saw him." " If he ever was there." 

? What was habitual or customary. 

Ex. — " The good times, when the farmer entertained the traveler without pay," 
<fcc. — Benton. 



VERBS. — TENSES. 173 

? 281. The past subjunctive denotes present or indefinite time, 
seldom past or future ; and it generally denies the act or state. 

Ex. — " If I were rich, I would give freely." " He ran as if he were running for 
life." " If I were to admit the pledge, he would then say," &c. See p. 20. 

? 282. The past potential may be present, past, or future in 
regard to both the mood and the act or state. It presents the act 
or state as real, contingent, or denied. 

Ex. — " He would | go." " I should | then buy it." " If I could \ buy it, I would." 

It denotes what was habitual or customary. 

Ex. — " There would she sit and weep for hours." 

When this tense does not denote past time, it may be called aorist, which means 
indefinite. 

? 283. The future tense denotes simply what will take place 
hereafter. 

Ex. — "The snow ivillmelt." " I shall be at home this evening." 

What will be habitual or customary. 

Ex. — " You will then leg." "The steer and lion at one crib shall meet." 



? 284. The perfect indicative represents something as past, 
but still connected with present time. 

Ex. — " I have lost my.knife." " They have been married twenty years." 

a. It implies that the doer, or what the subject denotes, yet exists, and 
that the act or state may be repeated. 

Ex. — " I have read Virgil many times." " Gen. Scott has gained several vic- 
tories." 

h That the act or state (begun in the past), and of course that to which 
it belongs, yet exist. 

Ex. — " This house has stood twelve years." " Thus has rr flowed for ages." 
c. That the result yet exists, though the actor or act may be no more. 

Ex. — " Cicero has written orations." " Washington has left his example to the 
world." 

This tense is peculiarly well adapted to express many of the relations which 
past things have to present things. It shows that past events, without any thing 
intervening, come down to us in their consequences, causes, or circumstances. It 
usually implies that the time in which the act occurred or began, and the present 
time, with perhaps some of the future, are viewed as one unbroken period. 
" Many who have been saluted with the huzzas of the crowd one day, have received 
its execrations the next ; and many, who, by the popularity of their own times, 
have been held up as spotless patriots, have, nevertheless, appeared on the histo- 
rian's page, when truth has triumphed over delusion, the assassins of liberty." — 
Mansfield. That is to say, Things nave always been so, and will continue to be so, 
while human nature remains what it is. " And where the Atlantic rolls, wide 
continents have bloomed." — Byron. That is to say, In the great chain of events ex- 
tending through all time, this remarkable one actually occurred ; and who shall 
say what strange things may yet happen ? In stead of taking a day, a year, or a 
lifetime, as present time, the poet grasps, and glances over, all duration as one 
unbroken period in which he speaks. Or the sentences may imply that these 
things have been handed down historically or traditionally to even the present time. 



174 VERBS. TENSES. 

? 285. This tense, preceded by relatives, when, as soon as, <fcc, 
may sometimes express future events. 

Ex. — " When you have seen Niagara Falls, write to me." 

? The perfect imperative commands the ending of something begun. 
Ex. — " Rave done thy charms." — Shak. "Do" = Begin and do. "Rave done" =Make an 
end of what you are now doing. This perfect is very seldom used. 

? 286. The perfect potential is present or future in regard to 

the mood, and presents the act or state as relatively past. 

Ex. — " The child may \ nave fallen into the well." " Then he may \ have gone 
ahead of you." 

? 287. The perfect participle and the compound denote the 

completion, sometimes the continuance, of the act or state, at the 

time referred to. 

Ex. — " This is a coat made by the machine." " He lives loved by all." u Being 
already enlisted, and having bought my outfit, I refused to turn back." 

• The compound participle which has the auxiliary having, is generally 
equivalent in time to the pluperfect, the perfect, or the future-perfect indicative. 

Ex. — " The sun having risen, we departed' 1 = When the sun had risen, we departed. 
"Raving found a pleasant home, he is content and happy." "Raving succeeded in this spec- 
ulation, you will then of course venture upon a greater." 

? 288. The perfect infinitive represents the act or state as past 
at the time referred to. 

Ex. — "My business shall appear to have been well conducted.'''' 



? 289. The pluperfect indicative represents something as 

finished or ended by a certain past time. 

Ex. — "Here a small cabin had been erected.' 1 '' " The cars had started when we 
came there." 

? It is not always necessary to use this tense, merely because the act or state 
was finished or ended by a certain past time. 

Ex. — " Little John was up "before daylight ;" " The horse jumped into the field, and soon 

afterwards began to eat the corn, 1 " — are proper, and not the same as, " had been up" ; 

— " had jumped" 

? 290. The pluperfect subjunctive or potential denotes simply 
past time, and denies the act or state. 

Ex. — " We might have sailed." " If I had been at home, I should have gone." 
The illiterate, whose sagacity is sometimes greater than that of philosophers, frequently 
endeavor to express this mood in pluperfect time; thus, "Rad I ov {have'] known it ;" "Rad 
he ov touched me." Observe also that we can say, '* The tree bears better fruit than if it 
had been grafted ;" and, having gone into the past, we still say, " The tree bore better fruit 
than if it had been grafted." 

? 291. The future-perfect tense represents something as 
finished or ended by a certain future time. 

Ex. — " The house, when finished, will have cost a fortune." 



? A tense is sometimes used emphatically, to deny the same state or 
act of the person or thing in a neighboring tense. 

Ex. — " He has been rich." But he is not so now. " He had been rich." But he 
was not so then. " But you vnll come to this." Though you are not in such a 
Btate now. 



VERBS. TENSES. \j *> 

? The present, the past, and the future, are sometimes called the absolute 
tenses ; and the perfect, the pluperfect, and the future-perfect, the relative tenses, 
for these generally relate from one point of time to another. 

Sometimes the prominent idea in the absolute tenses is, the existence of a cer- 
tain act or state ; in the relative tenses, the completion of the act or state. 

? Since the perfect passive participle generally implies completion, a 
passive verb, in the absolute tenses, is often equivalent in time to the cor- 
responding relative tenses of the active voice. 

Ex. — My rose-bush is destroyed'" " Some one has destroyed my rose-bush." 
"My coat w# then be finished ;" "The tailor will then have finished my coat.'" 
" Corn appears to be gathered;" " The formers appear to have gathered their corn*." 
Hence such forms as may be loved, ^ may be taken, must be loved, must be taken, is 
taught, &c, are ambiguous. "He is well taught"=Re has been well educated, or, 
He is now receiving good instruction. " The fleet must have been captured'' '=It is 
now necessary to believe it has been captured, or, It is necessary to capture it. 
Hence, too, the present passive is often used to express the present results of past 
actions. " The church is built of granite." " This book is well printed." 

? The forms may properly be considered subdivisions to the 
tenses. See p. 20. 

Moods and Tenses.— The subject of moods and tenses, though apparently a 
mystery, has perhaps a beautiful philosophy running through it, that well shows 
man may sometimes be wiser in his instincts than in his reason or learning. I 
have room for but a few and therefore incoherent remarks, which are designed to 
bear chiefly upon the subjunctive mood, and the apparent incongruity of tho 
tenses in regard to time. According to Mr. Bancroft, the verbs, in some rude In- 
dian languages, express, by means of inflections, entire propositions. It is known, 
too, that the" Emperor Augustus sometimes required, in his documents, in aliquem 
in preference to alicui, alleging that it was "more definite." The natural growth, 
then, of a language, in simplicity and improvement, is from inflections to par- 
ticles ; for a separate word arrests the attention better to an idea than if the idea 
were expressed along with the idea of another word. Our subjunctive mood, ac- 
cordingly, has been well-nigh absorbed by conjunctions, adverbs, and auxiliaries. 
Again," there are two worlds, — the mental and the material. What is of the former, 
is subjective ; of the latter, objective. The mind, though dependent on matter, is 
still, as poets say, " its own kingdom," in which " an eternal now does always last." 
The mental, therefore, often predominates over the material ; and hence the moods 
often prevail over the tense3. The moods properly relate to the mind of the 
speaker, and express what is real, ideal, contingent, or willed ; the infinitive mood 
being tolerated only as we tolerate a neuter gender. About our affairs we are con- 
tinually reasoning and conjecturing ; and, consequently, language abounds with 
sentences having conditions and conclusions. A condition may be assumed as a 
fact, as that which may become a fact, as a mere supposition without regard to fact, 
or as a mere supposition contrary to fact ; and the conclusion is about as variable. 
(See p. 170.) Such sentences require something like our subjunctive mood. But 
shall we make the mood depend on the conjunction ? or on the subjective sense of 
the verb? If on the conjunction, we then have the novelty of making mood a 
property of conjunctions, the forms of the verb are disregarded, and our mood 
floods the two other declarative moods. But if on the subjective sense of the verb, 
and on the peculiar forms, then we shall at least be in the analogy of all the sister 
languages, and readily find a province for our mood. It will then have two peculiar 
forms,— the present tense and the past, which furnish a beautiful distinction where 
there is an obvious and important difference, and which have been regarded, by 
our best writers, at least in the proportion of nine to one. " If love be rough with 
you, be rough with love." — Shakespeare. "If all the year were playing holidays, 
to play would be as tedious as to work." — Id. " He brags as if he were of note." 
■—■ Id. " If thou loam the wicked, and he turn not from his wickedness, he shall 
die in his iniquity." — Bible. "If the husbandman relax his labors, and his fields 
be left untilled," &c. — E. Everett. "If I were to repeat the names .... I should," 



17G VERBS. — TENSES. 

&c. — Id. " If I were to doubt .... I should," &c. — D. Webster. " If it were . . . 
I would say," &c. — Id. " If it be proved that he also was an accomplice," &c. — Id, 
"If the question were" &c. — Jeffrey. "If the natural course of a stream be ob- 
structed" &c. — Id. Lord Macaulay, I believe, never fails to distinguish the subjunc- 
tive forms from the indicative. Some grammarians, however, would abolish them, 
or merge them into the indicative ; but, since our language is already barren of in- 
flections, it were a pity that these few important ones should also be dropped. I 
am aware that the subjunctive mood is often disregarded in popular usage ; yet, 
because people often overlook or blur in the bustle of worldly pursuits the delicate 
logic which runs through language, is it a sufficient reason to degrade the lan- 
guage itself to a level with their practice or ignorance ? To the two tenses of this 
mood, already given, may be added the pluperfect, which has the same form as in 
the indicative mood, yet differs from it so much in sense that it is often parsed as 
'potential by equivalence ! 

" Oh ! had your fate been joined with mine, 
As once this pledge appeared the token ; 
These follies had not then been mine, — 

My early vows had not been broken." — Byron. 

Compare with — " Thy name is princely : though no poet's magic 

Could make Red Jacket grace an English rhyme ; 
Unless he had a genius for the tragic, 

And introduced it into pantomime." — Rallech : Old Edition. 

The latter pluperfect above is subjunctive, and not indicative : Because it is con- 
strued like the admitted forms of the subjunctive; it is equivalent to a potential 
form; in time, it is not antecedent, but concomitant or subsequent / a conclusion, 
even if more certain than a supposition, is still mental, and not matter of fact ; 
literally put into German, the form would be an unquestioned subjunctive ; the two 
languages are precisely analogous in this construction. It is surprising that more 
than 500 grammarians have overlooked this point for two or three centuries. 

Now, as to the tenses. The moods often prevail over them ; and any deviation 
from the strict time of the latter, may be considered modal. Let us suppose that 
we have the present and the past indicative. These will express whatever is now 
taking place, and whatever has taken place ; and these are all the events that we 
know with certainty. Now, suppose that our chief concern is, to express, not 
time, but the nature of the act or state, and mood, or modality, from reality or the 
greatest certainty as far as pure ideality, — how shall we get forms of the verb ? 
We are surest of what we are now witnessing ; and hence the present indicative 
expresses not only present events, but also the greatest certainty. Suppose we 
wish to express past or future events with greater than ordinary certainty, of 
course the present tense is the best form we can find. What depends on the or- 
ganization or inherent nature of things, not only exists now, but has a high degree 
of certainty ; therefore the present tense expresses also universal truths. Suppose 
now that we wish to state future or contingent events ; what can be more natural 
than to express with the act the will, authority, obligation, power, necessity, etc., 
on which its development into reality depends ? and hence, will, shall, can, may, 
must, etc., is adopted as a part of the verb. Now suppose that we wish to exclude 
the auxiliary sense, but to retain that of uncertainty. By dropping the auxiliary, 
we get a new form, which will answer for this purpose, and may be called the 
present subjunctive. Since doing precedes having, and since striving is apt to 
cease with possession, have was naturally adapted to express completion ; and so we 
get the perfect tenses. Lastly, suppose that we wish to express acts or states as 
merely ideal. None of the forms that we have made, will answer. But we can 
not now, or in future, do a past act. So what could be more ingenious or natural 
than that the mind should go back, and take the past tense and the pluperfect, 
and convert them into the needed tenses ? — the past tense to denote merely the act 
or state, and present or indefinite time; and the pluperfect to denote the completed 
act or state, and past time. The participles and the infinitives express but the 
state of the act as relatively continuing, finished, or purposed. This seems to me 
to be the general philosophy of the tenses ; the minor shades of expression being 
but figurative accommodations to the necessities of language. 



VERBS. PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 1 7 *7 

Persons and Numbers. 

? The person and number of a verb are its form as being 
suitable to the person and number of its subject. 
Ex. — I am. Thou art. He is. We are. They are. 

Excepting the verb be and some auxiliaries, English verb3 have but few 
variations to express persons and numbers; and hence these properties must 
generally be inferred from the subject. It is worthy of notice, too, that only 
the first part of the verb, or that which predicates, expresses the person and 
number. 

? A finite verb must a^ree with its subject in person and number. 

That is, it must be expressed according to the Conjugation, pp. 24-29, which 
shows how the best writers and speakers express the verb in regard to its subject. 

? The subject of every finite verb, in regard to person and num- 
ber, either is, or may be represented by, /, thou, he, she, it, we, you, 
or they. 

? 294. Thou generally requires the verb, or the first auxiliary, to end 
in est, st, or t. 

Ex. — " Thou hwivest — wast — hast — sitst." " Thou art the man." " Thou shalt 
not hill." Wert is used as well as wast, and is analogous to art. " That riches 
rarely purchase friends, thou didst soon discover, when thou icert left to stand thy 
trial uncountenanced and alone." — Johnson. " To her who sits where thou wert 
laid." — Bryant. " 'Tis all too late — thou wert, thou art, the cherished madness of 
my heart." — Byron. 

• 295. As the termination required by thou, is sometimes harsh, there 
is some tendency to drop it, especially in poetry. 

Ex. — " thou my voice inspire who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire." — 
Pope. "Perhaps thou noticed on thv way a little orb, attended by one moon — her 
lamp by night."— Pollok. " But thou .... shall bind."Sprague. 

? 296. He, she, or it, often requires the verb or the first auxiliary to end 
in s or th. See pp. 24-29 & 180. 

Ex.— "He writes;' 1 "He writeth." "She controls;" "She controlled." "It 
does become you ;" It doth become you." 

• 297. We, you, or they, never allows 5 or th to be annexed to the 
verb. In other words, plural verbs never assume s or th, and have the 
same form for all the persons. 

Ex. — "We learn" not learns. "They learn," not learns. "You learn." 
11 John, James, and William, [=they,] learn." 

Since it is not always easy to determine the person and number of the subject 
when it is variable in sense or complicated in its words, let us consider, first, the 
person of the entire subject; secondly, the number of the entire subject; and, 
lastly, what terms do not affect the form of the verb. 

• 298. Person. — When two or more nominatives, differing in per- 
son, are taken collectively, or are connected merely by and, the verb pre- 
fers the first person to the second, and the second to the third ; when they 
are taken separately, or are connected by or or nor, it prefers that of the 
nominative next to it. " You and /," or, " You, he, and F= We. " You 
and Ae"= You. 

Ex. — "You, he, and 7", I have to recite our lessons." " You and he | have to recito 
your lessons." u You or J am mistaken ;" better, " Either you are mistaken, or I 
am." u 27iou or thy friends are to make reparation." Courtesy usually requires 

8* 



178 VERBS. PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 

the first place to be given to the second person, and the last to the first. " You, he, 
and/;" "You and I;" "She and I." 

? 299. §iBigfiila,r. — A single object denoted by a singular nomina- 
tive ; a united group of objects viewed as one thing, and denoted by a 
singular collective or other noun; an object conceived as a whole or unit, 
though denoted by a plural nominative, or by several nominatives or 
words which may be connected by and ; two or more distinct or different 
objects taken individually, and denoted by a singular nominative, or by 
several nominatives, — require the verb to be in the singular number. The 
word, or phrase, each, every, no, many a, or, nor, and not, but not, as well 
as, &c, commonly makes a part of such a subject, and modifies its sense. 

Ex. — "Fire | burns." "The army of Xerxes was vanquished by the Greeks." 
" His family \ is large." " The '-Pleasures of Hope' was written by Campbell." "Gold- 
smith's '-Edwin and Angelina 1 is a fine little poem." " In yonder house lives a great 
scholar and celebrated writer" " The saint, the father, and the husband, prays." 
— Bums. "Why is \ dust and ashes [man] proud?" "The twenty dollars [a 
twenty-dollar bill] has been duly received." " Fifty feet of the second square was 
reserved for a church." The last two verbs should probably be plural ; and yet 
the singular implies a unity — a compactness in one — which the plural would not 
necessarily express. " Descent and fall to us is adverse." — Milton. Here is is 
more expressive than are would be. It implies that the fall is so connected with 
the descent, or follows it so closely, that the two may be considered one thing. And 
unites the two in form, but is strengthens the union by uniting them also in sense. 
" Wooing, wedding, and repenting, is a Scotch jig, a measure, and a cinque-pace." 
— Shakespeare. Here is seems to be proper as referring to the three things taken 
in a certain order as one whole. " Down comes the tree, nest, eagles, and all." — 
Fontaine. But I question whether even poetic license can protect the following 
couplet: " Here's no war-steed's neigh and champing, shouting clans or squadrons 
stamping." — Scott. "Every house \ was burned, and every man, woman, and child, 
ivas killed." " Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, was the appointed day." " lb 
forsake a friend, or to divulge his secrets, is mean." "Neither precept nor disci- 
pline | is so forcible as example." " No house and no fence \ was left." " Many a 
man \ has fallen a victim to intemperance." " There is Concord, and a Lexington, 
and a Bunker Hill, — and there they will remain for ever." — Webster. Emphatic 
arrangement. " For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory." — Bible. 

? 300. Plural. — Two or more objects denoted by a plural nomina- 
tive ; a single object or group conceived as to its parts or individuals, even 
when denoted by a collective or other noun singular in form ; objects denoted 
by a plural nominative in company with singular nominatives, taken sepa- 
rately, or connected by or or nor ; two or more distinct or different ob- 
jects taken collectively, and denoted by different nominatives connected 
by and, — require the verb to be in the plural number. 

Ex. — " The fires \ burn." " The ashes \ are hot." " The council \ were di- 
vided in opinion." "The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure." "Forty head of 
cattle | are grazing on yonder meadow." " John, James, and William, are study- 
ing" ^^nz hoys are studying. "You, he, and /, are allowed to go." "To love our 
enemies, to mind our own business, and to relieve the distressed, are things oftener 
praised than practised." " Either the magistrate or the laws are at fault." The 
plural nominative should generally be placed nearest to the verb ; or else each 
nominative should have its own verb expressed or understood. " Either the laws 
are at fault, or else the magistrate" [is]. Sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest 
nominative. " When there is an infant or infants who \ are yet," &a. — Mo. Satutes. 

? Terms that do not affect the form of the verb. — Adjuncts to 
the nominative, explanatory terms, parenthetical terms, terms to which 
others are compared, terms excluded or excepted, terms apparently set 
aside for a more expressive or important one, and terms mentioned as if 



VERBS. PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 179 

the objects had not been thought of till one assertion was already made, — 
do not affect the form of the verb. 

Ex. — "The long row of elms was luxuriantly green. 7 ' "Star after star ap- 
pears." " Death is the wages of sin." " The wages of sin are death" ' " Peace and 
honor are the crown of virtue." " His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds." 
Which term is explanatory, will depend on the sense, or on the conception of the 
person using the expression. 

Consider carefully what is chiefly to he said, and of which thing it is to be 
said. "The Bible, or Holy Scriptures, is the best book." "This man (and in- 
deed all such men) deserves death." "Our statesmen, especially John Adams, 
, have reached a good old age." " The carriage, as well as the horses, was much 
injured." "Industry, and not mean savings, produces wealth." "Since none 
but thou can end it." — Milton. " What black despair, what horror fills his mind." 
— Thomson, "Honor and virtue, nay, even interest demands a different course." 
" Not only the father, but the son also, was imprisoned." " Well, there is Bar- 
dolph, and Smith, and Jones, and ivho else V 

It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a collective noun that is singu- 
lar in form, expresses unity or plurality of idea, or whether its verb should be 
singular or plural. This will depend, in most instances, on the particular view 
or conception of the speaker. In the plural sense, a collective noun may be 
compared to a rope having its strands or threads untwisted ; in the singular, to 
the same in a twisted state. Collective nouns denoting persons, are more 
commcmly made plural than those denoting things ; and we may say, as a gen- 
eral rule for all cases, that whenever the term implies a separation, or distribu- 
tion, or diversity, in regard to the place, the time, the action, or the state, the 
verb should be plural, but not in other cases. Hence I should say, " The public 
are respectfully invited; 11 "My family are in the country" — some here, some 
there; "My family is in the country" — all in one place; " The committee was 
large ;" " The committee were not unanimous ;" " Congress has adjourned ;" " A 
number of boats [from time to time] have passed up the river this spring, and 
the number [as a whole] is daily increasing 11 This last example shows the 
distinction of unity and plurality of idea, in its greatest nicety. 

? 301. It is sometimes necessary to supply a substantive, to com- 
plete the entire subject. 

Ex. — " Little and often fills the purse"= To put in little and often, etc. " Poor 
and content is rich, and rich enough"=7b be poor and content, etc. " Slow and 
steady often outtravels haste"= What is slow and steady, etc. " Upwards of forty 
houses were burned"=^4 group, amounting to, etc. 

? 302. Most verbs in the imperative mood are in the second 
person, agreeing with thou, you, or ye, understood, and sometimes 
expressed. 

Ex. — "Go where glory waits thee"=6 J 6> thou, etc. "Strike — for the green 
graves of your sires" = Strike ye, etc. "Guard thou the pass." "Girls, do you 
gather the strawberries." 

Verbs of this mood are sometimes found, especially in poetry, of the first or the 
third person. When thus used, the nominative is always expressed. See p. 170. 

? 303. A verb is sometimes made to agree with it, in order to 
express a well-known act or state of something not easily discerned 
or named, or named by several words in the subsequent part of the 
sentence. 

Ex. — "It snows." "It rains." " It cleared off." "It behooves us to improve 
our time." " What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his^ own 
soul?" When such verbs denote states of the weather, or the fitness of things, 
they are usually called impersonal or unipersonal verbs, though rather unnecessa- 
rily so ; for the difficulty lies in the import of it, and not in the agreement of the 



180 AUXILIARY VERBS. 

verb. Only such expressions as meseems, meseemed, methinks, methought, should 
be termed impersonal, or rather, anomalous ; because they have no nominatives 
with which they can properly agree. So, " Forthwith on all sides to his aid was 
run by angels many and strong," — Milton ; (a Latinism ;) and perhaps, " God said, 
Let there be light, and there was light," for the verb let hardly refers to any being 
addressed. Meseems is abridged from " To me it seems ;" and methinks perhaps 
from " To me it thinks," i. e., it causes me to think. " Prince. Where shall we 
soiourne till our coronation? Gloucester. Where it thinks best unto your royal 
self." — Shakespeare: Old Edition. In the sentence, " Thinks I to myself, I'll stop" 
— Jane Taylor, thinks may be parsed according to Note XI, or as put for think 
by enallage. 

Person-and-n amber inflections belong to the indicative mood and the poten- 
tial, mostly to the indicative. The subjunctive mood is varied, only to agree 
with thou, and then not always. Whether s or es should be added, should al- 
ways be determined in accordance with the regular mode of forming the plural 
of nouns; hence the forms u wooes," "cooes," &c, which are sometimes found, 
should be woos, coos. Most auxiliaries are not varied in the third person sin- 
gular. Thou requires the termination t, st, or est. Are, were, shall, and will, 
take t; the other auxiliaries, st. Other verbs take, in the indicative present, st 
or est, according as they require s or es in the third person singular ; though 
sometimes est is preferred even to st. A few verbs, which end in vowel sounds, 
always assume est ; as, wooest. In the past tense, the verbs assume st only, 
if it will coalesce in sound ; if not, est. Poets and preachers sometimes reject 
either, to avoid harsh or difficult pronunciation. In general, st only should be 
added, when this is sufficient ; and when the verb already ends in the sound of 
sty or in a cluster of consonants not coalescing well with st, the termination may 
be rejected. In the solemn style, in stead of s or es, th is added, if it will coa- 
lesce in sound ; if not, eth. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

? An auxiliary verb helps another verb to express its meaning 
in a certain manner or time. Verbs, not auxiliary, are called prin- 
cipal verbs. 

? The auxiliary verbs are be and all its variations; do, did ; can, 
could; have, had ; may, might ; must; shall, should ; will, would. 
See p. 16. 

? 304. Sometimes he, do, have, will, would, or even can, is used as a 
principal verb. When so used, it is not combined with a principal verb 
expressed or understood. Do=act, perform; H.xvE=own, possess ; will 
=wish, 



Ex. — " It is easy to be idle." " He has done the work." " He willed his prop- 
erty to his sister." " I tvould I could please you." " In evil, the best condition is, 
not to will ; the second, not to can." — Bacon. 

? 305. Auxiliary verbs are often convenient when we wish to ex- 
press the verb interrogatively, negatively, or elliptically. 

Ex. — " Do you know Lydia Flare ?" Placed before the nominative. "Can you 
go?" " I do not want his company." " If man will not do justice, God will" [do 
justice]. " He could have done it, and so could you." "They herd cattle and raise 
corn, just as we used to do;" i. e., to herd cattle and raise corn. Do is frequently 
thus used as a sort of pro-verb, to represent an active verb already mentioned. 
Some grammarians condemn this use of it ; yet, as it often enables us to avoid the 
repetition of a long and tedious phrase, our language can not well spare it. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 181 

? Be primarily signifies predication or existence ; do, action in general, 
which is limited to a particular kind by the principal verb ; can, to know ; 
have, to possess; may, ability; must, necessity; shall, proceeding from 
another's will or from our circumstances ; and will, proceeding from our 
own will. But the primitive or literal sense can not always be traced. 

Ex.— " The corn is planted.' 7 " He does study." " I can [know how to] read." 
(To con a lesson=to study it. Out of to=beyond perception.) " I have been 
hurt." "I may buy it;" " You might help us." (A mighty storm.) " He shall 
study." " He will study." 

? 306. Be is used chiefly to express the verb in the passive and pro- 
gressive forms. See p. 184. 

Ex. — "The house is built." "The leaves are falling." It shows when and 
how the person or thing exists in the state denoted by the rest of the verb. 

? 307. l>o or did generally adds force to the predicate, or expresses 
the emphatic form. See p. 184. 

Ex. — " I do really believe it." "Do you treat him well, nevertheless." 

? 308. Can or could expresses ability or possibility, — physical, 
mental, or moral. 

Ex. — "I can carry the bucket." "Can you write a composition ?" U I can not 
break my promise." " It can not snow here in July." " It can not be" " Such 
a man could not live in our neighborhood." It is morally impossible. 

? 309. Have or fiiad makes a part of every perfect tense. 

? 310. May or miglit expresses ability, possibility, probability, per- 
mission, wishing. 

Ex. — "I might have bought this valuable lot then." "It might be answered 
thus." " It may rain tills evening." " We may not live to see it." " You may 
all go out to play." "May you prosper ." " O, that he might return !" 

? 311. Must expresses necessity, — physical, mental, or moral. 

Ex. — "Die I must." " But for a little tube of mercury, the whole crew must 
have sunk." " There must have been a heavy rain in these parts." It is necessary 
to believe there was. " Your promise must be kept." "My vote mast not be re- 
gistered in favor of such a bill." It ought not to be, and shall not be. 

When we look into the world, we can readily observe that the acts or states 
ascribed to objects, proceed either from their own will or nature, or else are 
caused by other agents or things. The former province is chiefly that for will 
and would, the latter for shall and should. 

? 312. Shall or sfiould sets forth the act or state, not as depend- 
ing on the doer's will, but on that of another; or as proceeding from 
authority, influence, or circumstances perhaps out of his control. Hence, 
shall often implies compulsion ; and should, duty or obligation. Frequently, 
they denote something as simply future or subsequent, or an assertion 
modestly set forth as being somewhat a condition or inference. 

Ex. — " You shall stay at home to-day." " Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thy- 
self." "I shall be drowned; for nobody will help me." "I resolved that he 
should go" "He vowed that I should repent of it." " Whoever shall violate this 
law, shall be punished." " Our children shall celebrate this day with bonfires and 
illuminations." It will come to pass. " Yes, my son ; j ou shall often find the 
richest men the meanest." In your course through life, this will necessarily in- 
trude itself upon your notice. (A use somewhat obsolescent, but good.) " Go and 
see him, and you shall never want to see him again." "Should you find any pa- 
paws, halloo to us." "I should be obliged to him, if he would gratify me." " I 
should be pleased to have his company" [if he would condescend to wait upon me]. 



182 VERBS. PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 

"Do you think the book will sell? — I should think so" [judging from its qualities, 
and the wants of the public]. 

? 314. Will or would sets forth the act or state as depending on 
the will or the nature of what is denoted by the subject of the verb. 
Hence this auxiliary often implies repetition of the act. Frequently, it 
denotes the act or state as simply future or subsequent. 

Ex. — "If he will go to California in spite of remonstrance, I will furnish him 
an outfit ; but I fear he will find but little gold there, and will never bring back as 
much as he took with him." " The cause will raise up armies. 7 ' " He would not 
^without his father's word." "This would answer our purpose." " He knew 
that this would have been wrong." "There will she sit and weep for hours." 
"Bat still the house affairs would draw her thence." 

? 315. In a dependent proposition, shall or should must nearly always 
be used to express simple futurity or contingence ;. for, in such a proposi- 
tion, will or would generally refers to the will of what the subject denotes. 

Ex. — " If I shall have been." " If you shall have been." " When he shall go." 
" Whoever shall say so." 

Since shall and will are often misapplied, the following rules may all be found useful : — 

1. Qur own voluntary actions are denoted by will, and our contingent 
ones by shall; the contingent actions of others are expressed by will, and 
their compulsatory ones by shall. 

2. Shall, in the first person of dependent propositions, and will, in .the 
second and third persons, foretell. Will, in the first person, implies voli- 
tion or promise ; and shall, in the second and third persons, implies com- 
pulsion or force. Shall, in dependent propositions, foretells ; and will 
implies volition. Should is generally preferable to would, where shall 
would be preferable to will; and vice versa. 

3. Will or would excludes the volition or control of the speaker over 
the act or state, unless he is also what the subject of the verb denotes. 
Shall or should excludes the volition or control of what the subject denotes, 
over the act or state. 

The first and second rules are simple but inadequate ; the last reaches all cases. 

The auxiliaries may, can, must, will, and shall, generally accord best with 
one another, and with the present tenses; the auxiliaries might, could, would, 
and should, generally accord best with one another, and with the past tenses. 

PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 

What is a participle ? What is an infinitive? See p. 165. 

? Participles and infinitives also express the acts or states ex- 
pressed by other forms of the verb. 

? They likewise have voices. 

] They do not have moods ; or rather, they are themselves a mood. 

? 316. They express tense relatively and in any period of time, 
and not absolutely, like finite verbs, in fixed periods of time. 

Ex. — " He came wounded ;" " He came wounding f 9 " He came to wound." " He 

COMES WILL COME WOUThded. " "I INTEND to go ;" " I INTENDED to go." 

? They do not have person and number, and therefore do not 
express affirmation. 



VERBS. PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 183 

? 317. While they have the general meaning of verbs, they 

also partake of the nature of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 

They form a circuit of expressions between predicate-verb3, and other parts of 
speech ; and hence they enrich language in variety and power of expression. 

? 318. Since they have not person or number, or do not predicate, they 
ascribe acts or states to substantives, and yet leave them free in their case 
construction with other words; thus enabling us to abridge clauses, con- 
dense the sentence, and give suitable prominence to each of its parts. 

Ex. — " The man, turning round as if to seek a passenger of whom to make in- 
quiry, beheld, on the other side of the way, another man apparently engaged in the 
same search." " The man, when he turned round as if he sought a passenger of 
whom he might make inquiry, beheld, on the other side of the way, another man 
who was apparently engaged in the same search," is more tedious than the pre- 
ceding sentence, and does not even express precisely the same sense. " His body, 
dropping from the horse, was found, after several days, stretched upon the ground, 
with the faithful animal still standing- at its side." Observe here how the finding 
of the body is made most prominent, and how all other parts become duly sub- 
ordinate. 

? Their brevity gives force ; besides, participles are often the most vivid 
and expressive of terms. 

Ex. — " The rising sun, o'er Galston moors, with glorious light was glinting" 



? There are three participles; tbe present, the perfect, and the 
compound. 

? There are two infinitives ; tbe present and the perfect. 

? 319. The present participle ends in ing, and denotes 
continuance of the act or state. It is active, if from an active verb ; 
sometimes passive. 

? 320. The perfect participle ends in ed, or is formed as 
shown in the list of irregular verbs ; and it denotes completion, 
sometimes continuance. It is passive, except when combined with 
the auxiliary have. 

? 321. The compound participle consists of being, having, 
or having been, and some present or perfect participle placed after it. 

? The words being, having, having been, are needed and inserted to ex- 
clude predication ; to express voice, time, cause, &c. ; or to bring out the 
sense of the participle more exactly, clearly, or forcibly. 

Ex. — " This proved, the conclusion is irresistible." Proved is apparently finite, 
and the sense is obscure or ambiguous. " This being proved, the conclusion is 
irresistible." " The old chief, warned by these few words, departed immediately." 
Passive. "The old chief, having warned by these few words, departed imme- 
diately." Active. " He comes attended by his friends." Present. " He comes, 
having been attended by his friends." Past. "The army did not march ill pro- 
vided." State. " The army did not march, being ill provided." Cause. " I saw 
the man admitted" is not equivalent to " I saw the man, being admitted." " The 
man skilled in the business, was appointed." Restrictive. " The man, being skilled 
in the business, was appointed." Not restrictive. The compound participle is 
never restrictive. " Santa Anna kept no prisoners ; it having been decreed so." 
Voice, time, and cause. 

The nature of our compound participles is misunderstood in all the English grammars I 
have seen. 



184 VERBS. — PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 

? 322. The present infinitive begins with to, and is rela- 
tively present or future in time. 

? 323. The perfect infinitive begins with to have, and de- 
notes completion, or past time. 

Ex. — " I hoped to see you." " He appears to be rich." " He appears to have 
been rich." 



? We may consider participles and infinitives, first, as combined 
with auxiliaries to make finite or other verbs; secondly, as being 
participles and infinitives proper; and, thirdly, as having become 
words of other parts of speech. 

? 324. Participles are combined with participles to make com- 
pound participles. 

Ex. — Having been; being worn; having been standing. "Being standing;" 
rarely used. 

? 325. The present participle is combined with the auxiliary be 
and its variations, to make the progressive form. 

Ex. — To be writing ; to have been writing. " The bells are tolling.'''' 

? 226. The perfect participle is combined with the auxiliary be 
and its variations, to make the passive form or voice. 

Ex. — To be written ; to have been written. " He is gone." " He was struck." 

? 327. The perfect participle is combined with the auxiliary have 
and its variations, to express the perfect tenses. It is then active, if 
from a transitive verb. 

Ex. — To have written ; to have been writing. I had written. 

? 328. The compound participle is not properly combined, with 

any auxiliary, as a part of a finite verb. 

Ex. — " A new party is now being formed" should be, "A new party is now 
forming.' 1 '' "The church was then being built" should be, " The church was then 
building ." 

? 329. The present infinitive, without the sign to, is combined 
with the auxiliaries do, can, may, must, will, and shall, and with 
their past forms, to express absolute tenses. 

Ex. — " He does [to] study." "I can | study*=l am able to study. " I shall \ 
study" " I would \ study." 

The original infinitive properly has not to ; the form with to is made from the 
other, and is needed, in construction, to distinguish the infinitive from the present 
indicative or imperative. Thus the preposition to has become a sort of auxiliary 
to the infinitive, though not an auxiliary verb ; for the infinitive, not expressing 
aflirmation, needed not a verb for its auxiliary. 

? 330. The infinitive is also construed, without the sign to, after 

the active verbs bid, make, need, hear, \ let, see, feel, and dare ; 

sometimes after find, have, help, please, and equivalents of see ; and 

sometimes after a conjunction or in colloquial expressions. 

Ex.— " Let u 3 sing." " I heard him say it." "You had better^." "They 
learn to read and [to] write. [It is] " Better [to] lose than [to] be disgraced." 



VERBS. PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 185 

! 331. The participle may express something subordinate — 
As the cause. " John, being tired, went to bed." [fore feet. 

As the means. " The horse charged upon the wolves, striking them with his 
As the manner. " The cars came rattling." See Southey's Lodore. 
As the time. "Having taken shelter here, he saw an ant," &c. 
As the state. "He became attached to us." 
As the accompaniment " She sat near, reading a book." 
As the condition. "Circling round, you may approach on the other side." 
As the respect wherein. " I consider him as having lost his right." 

? 332. It is sometimes used — 

Absolutely with a substantive. "The bells having rung, we went to church." 
Absolutely after an infinitive. " To go prepared, is necessary." 

? 333. The infinitive may express something — 
As the cause. "I grieve to hear of your bad conduct." 
As the purpose. " And they who came to scoff, remained to pray." 
As simply & future or subsequent event. " He fell to rise no more." 
As the respect wherein. "Willing to wound and yet afraid to strike." 
As a determination or obligation. " I am to go." " It is to be deplored, that," &c. 
As the manner. "All things went to suit me." 

As the supplement of a comparison. " Good enough to sell." " So high as to 
be invisible." u He knows better than to venture." 

? 334. It is sometimes used — 

As a subject. u To cultivate the earth is the most pleasant occupation." 

As an object. " He is learning to read." " The ship is about to sail." 

As a predicate-nominoMve. " To sin is to suffer. 11 

As an appositive. " Delightful task! to rear the tender thought." 

There are several less important uses of participles and infinitives. 

? 335. The infinitive may be construed with — 

A noun. " He has the courage to venture." 

A pronoun. " Hear him speak." 

An adjective. " He is anxious to start." 

A verb. " He seems to prosper." " I came to remain." 

An adverb. " He knows when to purchase." 

A preposition. " He is about to sell his farm." 

A conjunction. " He is wiser than to believe it." 

An interjection, eiliptically. " 0, to be in such a condition 1" 

! The participle leans to the adjective, and the infinitive to the 
noun. 

Ex.— "I am studying 11 =I am in the state of studying ; but, "I can study" '=1 
am able to do the thing called studying. 

? 336. Since every act or state must belong to some object, par- 
ticiples and infinitives relate to substantives ; and since they partake 



186 VERBS. PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 

of the nature of other parts of speech, they may, especially the in- 
finitive, modify other words besides. 

Ex. — " The Passions oft, to hear her shell, thronged around her magic cell." To 
hear relates to Passions, and also modifies thronged, by showing the purpose. 
Sometimes the principal verb is omitted. " To tell the truth, [I must confess] I 
was in fault." Sometimes participles and infinitives are used absolutely or in- 
dependently ; though words by which we may avoid this construction, can often 
be supplied. "To become disheartened, is ruinous." [We] " Considering his youth, 
[think] he is very prudent." See p. 47. 

The foregoing paragraph is substantially Eule XII. In the syntax of verbs, the most ob- 
vious distinction is into verbs finite and verbs not finite. Since finite verbs are always re- 
ferred to subjects, since every act or state must belong to some object, and since participles 
and infinitives "partake the nature of verbs," why should their relation to a subject be dis- 
regarded, or less regarded in one than in the other ? Our rule exhausts the syntax of parti- 
ciples and infinitives, whether used in combination, or as participles and infinitives proper. 
To participles proper, it is sufficient to apply only the first portion of the Rule. 



? 337. Participles and infinitives become nouns, when they as- 
sume cases ; and they may then be used in any case except the 
possessive. 

Ex.' — " To love is natural." " Mary is learning to read." " There is little glory 
in having been detected in a mean action." "It is better to suffer than to injured 
" No sooner has he peeped into the world than he has done his do." — Hudibras. 
Here the infinitive has become entirely a noun. 

J 338. By virtue of their verbal sense, verbal nouns may govern 
other substantives in the objective case, or be modified adverbially; 
and by virtue of its substantive sense, the participle may govern an- 
other substantive in the possessive case. 

Ex — " To love our neighbors, is our duty." "His having sometimes written to 
me, is no evidence of Mary's corresponding with him." Such possessives are 
authorized by good writers : it is often better, however, to use an ordinary noun, 
or a clause beginning with that. 

? 339. The infinitive always remains abstract, and is never gov- 
erned by a preposition, except sometimes by about or except. 

? 340. The participle may so far lose the nature of the verb as 

to assume the modifications of a noun, or become even concrete. 

Ex. — " Painting and sculpture." " Good lodgings." " In the arranging of his 
affairs" =In the arrangement of his affairs. The participle, with an article before 
it and of after it, is always a noun ; and, as such., converts adverbs into adjectives, 
or is compounded with them. "By carefully reading your composition;" "By 
the careful reading of your composition." " In setting forth his system ;" " In the 
setting-forth of his system."-, 

? Participles and infinitives lose, with their verbal nature, the 
idea of time. 

? 341. The participle sometimes becomes a participial adjective ; 

that is, it ascribes the act or state to its subject as a quality. 

Ex. — "A shattered oak." " Life's fleeting moments." Sometimes it becomes a 
mere adjective. " This is surprising" =wonderful. 

Participles sometimes become adverbs, prepositions, or conjunctions. 

Ex. — "It is freezing cold." Concerning, respecting. Provided. 



VERBS. CONJUGATION. 187 



CONJUGATION. 

? The conjugation of a verb is the proper combination and 
regular arrangement of its parts, to express voices, moods, tenses, 
persons, and numbers. 

? 342. Most forms of the verb consist of auxiliaries combined 
with participles or infinitives. See the preceding section. 

? 343. Only the present, the preterit, and a few other forms, can 
be used without auxiliaries. 

? 344. The preterit can not be properly combined with any 
other part of the verb. 

Ex. — "I had went" "He was took," should be, " I had gone," "He was taken." 

? A verb that has assumed an auxiliary, is sometimes callea 
compound, 

? A few verbs want most of their parts, or have no participles, 
and are therefore termed defective. 

? These are beware, me thinks, ought, quoth, wit, and most of the 
auxiliary verbs. 

? Beware, derived from be and aware, may be used wherever be would oc- 
cur in the conjugation of the verb be. "Beware of pickpockets." " Tis wisdom 
to beware, and better to avoid the bait than struggle in the snare." — Dry den. 
" If angels fell, why should not men beware." — Young. 

1 Ought, said to be an old preterit of owe, is, without regard to the infini- 
tive after it, in the present tense when it refers to present time, and in the past 
tense when it refers to past time. So is also must. Present : "I know he ought 
to go ;" "I know he ought to have gone." No s is added. Past : "I knew he^ 
ought to surrender" [then] ; "I knew he ought to have surrendered." 

? Quoth is sometimes used, in familiar or humorous language, for said' 
"'Not I,' quoth Sancho." 

? Wit, in the sense of know, is yet used in the phrase to wit=namely. The 
other forms are nearly obsolete. See p. 16. 



? 345. The forms are certain modes of expressing the verb, 
which may be considered subdivisions to the tenses. 

? In general, verbs branch out thus : They have moods ; moods 
have tenses ; tenses have forms ; and forms have persons and num- 
bers. 

? There are five forms ; the common, the emphatic, the progres- 
sive, the passive, and the ancient, or solemn style. See pp. 20-29. 

Define the forms. See p. 20. 

? The common form should be used in familiar discourse. 

? The emphatic form often implies an opposite opinion which it aims 
to remove. When do or did is excluded by some other auxiliary, we 
simply lay a greater stress on the latter. 



18b VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 

? The progressive form can generally be applied only to acts or states 
that may have intermissions and renewals. Permanent mental acts or 
states can therefore be seldom expressed in it. " I respect him;" not, "I 
am respecting him." This form is sometimes highly vivid and expressive. 

? The ancient form, or solemn style, is used in the Bible, by the religious 
denomination called Friends, frequently in religious worship, sometimes in 
poetry, and sometimes in burlesque. 



Since the chief purpose of Conjugation is the making of predicates, we may add the 
following : — m 

? 346. Be is often combined with about and the infinitive, to ex- 
press something as future or impending at the time referred to. 
Ex. — " We were about to start." 

? 347. Be, in some of the tenses, may be combined with the 
infinitive to express determination or design. 
Ex. — "I was to go early." " They are to be sold." 

? 348. Have is often combined with the infinitive to express obli- 
gation or necessity. 

Ex. — " I have to go." " I had to do every thing." 

? 349. The verbs seem, appear, suppose, &c, are often combined 
with the infinitive to modify or soften the assertion. 
Ex. — " She seems to know but little." 

? 350. A proposition is made interrogative, generally by placing 
the verb or some part of it after the nominative. 
Ex. — " Know ye the land ?" " Have you seen him ?" 

351. A verb is made negative, by placing not after it or after the 

first auxiliary. Participles and infinitives generally require not to 

be placed before them. 

Ex. — "I lenow not" "I did not know it." "Not to know somethings, is an 
honor." "Not finding me, he went away." 

? 352. Some propositions are both interrogative and negative. 
Negative questions imply something adverse to the speaker's belief, 
or ask for confirmation; affirmative questions ask for information. 
The former often suppose an affirmative answer in the hearer ; and 
the latter, a negative answer. Both kinds are answered by yes or 
no alike. 

Ex. — "Has the carriage not come yet ?" u Is not Philip master of Thermopylae ?" 
&c. "Shall wo gather strength by irresolution and inaction ?" &c. "Did you go ? 
— No." "Did you not go? — No." "And did they not catch you? — No, thank 
Heaven. — You were not kicked, then? — No, sir.— Nor caned ? — No, sir. — Nor 
dragged through a horse-pond? — Lord ! no, sir." — Garrick. 



VERBS. EXERCISES. 189 

EXERCISES. 
Examples to be Analyzed and Parsed. 

Parse the verbs, including participles and infinitives : — 

1. 

A fierce dog caught* the robber. A cloud is b passing over us. The 
place was covered with a profusion of flowers. Misers hoard money. 
Money is hoarded by misers. That noisy marsh is now draining. Man 
becomes indolent in a warm climate. Thou didst create this wondrous world. 

2. 

You do not understand me. We have learned our lessons. The hunt- 
ers had killed a bear. I shall remain at home when it rains. When I 
have completed this grammar, I will visit you. The turkeys will have 
left the field, before you can get there. I will not beg favors of you, as 
others have done. "Will you walk into my parlor?" said a Spider to 
a Fly 

3. 
You may walk c into the garden, but you must not pluck c the flowers. 
The storm may have broken down the old apple-tree. I could not carry 
the trunk. A good resolution should not be broken. If a horse could 
have been procured, we would have sent him. If you should write to her, 
it might appear that I had requested it. 

4. 
Who would refuse to reward d them 4 ? Does any man believe that this 
giant aggregate of states can be preserved by force ? Shall we submit to 
chains and slavery ? If he be chosen, he will become insolent. I would 
I were with him. If he valued it highly, he would not sell it so cheap. 
He smiled as if he knew me. He was spoken e of for Congress. The vic- 
tory had been ours, had they fought more bravely. 

5. 
Revere thyself, and yet thyself despise. Do not give a poor man a 
stone, after he has died for want of bread. G-o, wash your face, and get 
ready for school. Seek we now some deeper shade. Lead he the way 
who knows the spot. Hallowed be thy name ; thy kingdom come. 

6. 
He was born to be f great. I came here to work^, not to play. The 
poem was to be published. We like to please our teacher. You behave 
too badly to go into company. The house is estimated to have cost fifty 
thousand dollars. To work 1 is better than to starve 1 . He is afraid, me- 
thinkss, to hear you tell it. There let the laurel spread 12 , the cypress wave. 

7. 
James ran fast, pursuing 1 John, and pursued by us. The machinery, 
being oiled J, runs well. Having written his letter, he sealed it. Spring 
comes robed in silken green. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 
A word can send the crimson color hurrying to the cheek with many 
meanings. The falling 10 leaves remind us of declining years. There 
tyrants, uncrowned 12 , unepitaphed 10 , shall rot. 



190 VERBS. EXERCISES. 

8. 
Considering 11 his age, he is far advanced. To conclude, I shall oppose 
the sending of the navy there. By fearing to attempt something, you will 
do nothing. There is much to do. She was punished for having torn 
her book. I wept a last adieu. 

9. 

The flax often failed, and the sheep were destroyed by wolves. The 
mansion, with its gardens and groves, extends over a large area. The 
seasons, each in its turn, cheer the soul. Every twenty- four hours make 
a day. Every people have some kind of religion. Each private family 
pays a tax of five dollars for water. A remnant of cloth was left 11 . A 
remnant of the tribe were left 11 . 5 from 7 leave 2. 5 from 7 leaves 2. 
Two-fifths are greater than one-fourth [is]. A portion of these Indians 
have some education. 

10. 
The Ehine 1 and the Ehone rise m in Switzerland. Lofty mountains, 
enormous glaciers, and wild, romantic valleys, successively appear. Tower 
and temple, hut and palace, were consumed by 'fire, A log-rolling, a 
quilting, or a wedding, was a time of general festivity. Every horse and 
every ox was stolen. You n or he is in fault. You, he, and I, [we,] are° 
invited. Continued exertion, and not hasty efforts, leads to success. 
Every doubtful or chimerical speculation was forbidden. 

11. 
-The howling of the wolf, and the shrill screaming of the panther, were 
mingled in nightly concert with the war-whoop of the savages. Where 
now is peace, sobriety, order, and love ? To have suffered the inhabitants 
to escape, would have prolonged the evils of war. That? Cortes with 
but a handful of adventurers should have conquered so great an empire, 
is a fact little short of the miraculous. 

[To have] All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy 7 . 
All play and no work makes .Tack a mere toy. 
The sun hath set in folded clouds, — 

Its twilight rays are gone ; 
And, gathered in the shades of night, 
The storm is rolling on. 

12. 

We ought not to sacrifice the sentiments of the soul, to gratify the 
appetites of the body. The conclusion, 7 that this river must be the out- 
pouring of a continent, was acute and striking. She does not spend her 
time in making herself look more advantageously what she really is. 

Observe also the effect on the mind of Kichard, of Palmer's being ar- 
rested, and committed to prison. — D. Webster. 

Delightful task! to rear 7 the tender thought, 

To teach 7 the young idea how to shoot 12 . — Thomson. 

(a.) "Caught" is a vert, it affirms something of a subject; principal parts, — catch, caught., 
catching, caught; irregular, it * does not assume ed; transitive; it has an object* active, it 
represents the dog as acting; indicative mood, it declares something as an actual occur- 
rence or fact ; past tense, it refers the act simply to past time ; and of the 3d person, sin- 
gular number, to agree with its nominative, or subject, "dog" according to Rule XL 
(Repeat it.) (p.) "Is" is an auxiliary verb, — a verb that helps another to express the act 
in a certain manner or time ; it here expresses the affirmation, indicative mood, and present 
tense, of the verb "is passing" "is passing" is a verb, etc. (c.) Say, potential mood. 



VERBS. EXERCISES. 191 

it expresses the permission to walk. potential mood, it expresses the moral necessity of 

plucking, (d.) " To reward. " is a transitive, active, present infinitive, from the verb re- 
ward, rewarded, rewarded. It is here used as a noun of the neuter gender, 3d person, sin- 
gular number ; and in the objective case— being the object of the verb "would refuse"— ac- 
cording to Rule IV. (e.) "Was spoken of" is a verb, it affirms * * * compound, it is composed 
of a verb and a preposition ; prin. pis., etc. (/.) "To be" is an infinitive,— a. form of the verb 

* * * neuter, it does not imply action ; present, it does not express completion at the time re- 
ferred to ; and it relates to " he," and modifies " was born" according to Rule XII. (<?.) 

it relates to " I," and modifies " came" by expressing the purpose, according to Rule XII. 
(&.) principal parts, — methinks, rnethought ; defective, it has not all the parts of a full verb 

* * * and impersonal, being used only in the 3d person, singular number, without a suitable 
subject, according to Note XI. 0".) "Pursuing" is a participle,- -an inflected form * * * tran- 
sitive, it has an object ; active, it represents James as acting: present, it expresses the con- 
tinuance of the act at the time referred to ; and it relates to " James," according to Rule 
XVI. ( j.) "Being oiled" is a participle, * * * compound, it is composed of the auxiliary 
participle " being" and the perfect participle " oiled;" passive, it assumes the act of the ob- 
ject acted upon, etc. (fc.) Equivalent to " We, considering his age, think," etc. ; or apply 

Note XII. (1.) and one of the nominatives to "rise," according to Rule I. (m.) and 

of the 3d person, plural number, to agree with " Rhine and Rhone"— a plural subject- 
according to Rule XI. in.) and in the nominative case to are understood, etc. (o.) 

and of the 1st person, plural number, to agree with "You, he, and I," — equivalent to 

we, a plural subject,— according to Rule XI. {p.) " That Cortes with," etc., is a clause used 
as a noun of the neuter gender, 3d person * * * and in the nominative case to " is" according 
to Rule I. (Now parse the words separately.) 

Examples to be Corrected. 

All the liabilities to error in regard to verbs, may be reduced to the fol- 
lowing heads : — 

1. Choice of verbs. 2. Choice of forms. 3. Choice of auxiliaries. 
4. Promiscuous use of different forms in the same connection. 5. Im- 
proper omissions or substitutions. 6. Verbs improperly made tran- 
sit ive, intransitive^ or passive. 7. . Moods and tenses. 8. Persons 
and numbers. 9. Participles and infinitives. 

In correcting the following examples, the principles already given should also be applied; 
ind sometimes an example will occur that must be referred to the first precepts«of this entiie 
section. 

1. Choice of Verbs. 

The true or most appropriate verb should always be selected. 

We were all setting round the fire. At the last setting of our legislature. 
He set up a short time, then lay himself down again. After laying a while, 
he raised up. He laid down to take a nap. He flew with his family to 
America. They shall fly from the wrath to come. All the lands near the 
Mississippi were overflown. Can you learn me to write ? I waked early. 
The thief illuded the police. He was much effected by the news. I spent 
much time to advance my interest, but affected nothiug. I expect it rained 
yesterday. We suspect the trip will afford us great pleasure. I love milk 
better than coffee. — like — Morse discovered the telegraph, and Harvey in- 
vented the circulation of the blood. The garment was neatly sown. A verb 
ought to agree with its subject, in person and number. (Say, "-should agree" 
for ought implies moral obligation.) Carry the horse to water. He was raised 
in the South. What large rivers from the west empty into the Mississippi ? 
After dilating a while on the subject, the learned judge took his seat. — expa- 
tiating — With Mr. Headley, an event always "transpires." — Poe. The 
queen, whom it highly imported that the monarch should be at peace, acted the 
part of a mediator. I calculate to invest my money in something else. — in- 
tend — or, expect — I didn't go to do it. I have made a thousand bushels of 
potatoes this year. I am necessitated to go. We were falling trees to build 



192 VERBS. EXERCISES. 

a house. His property was forfeited to the State. — confiscated — (Suppose 
you are away from home, would you, in your letters, speak of going or of coming 

home?) Write for me no more, for I will certainly . If I can absent myself, 

I will to see you. She is now getting the better of her sickness. He was 

taken hold of by a ruffian. — seized — We were found fault with. — cen- 
sured — One of the ships was lost sight of. And resolutely keep its laws, 
uncaring consequences. — Burns. — not heeding — or, not fearing — So and 
so got among horses, and it was all up with him. — Tattler. — began to trade in 
horses, and lost all he had ; or, — kept a coach, and soon became a bankrupt. ; 

2. Choice of Forms. 

The true or most appropriate form of the verb should always be 
selected. 

a. The past indicative should not be used as a participle. 

b. The perfect participle should not be used for the past indicative. 

c. A compound participle should not be used as a part of a finite verb. 

He knowed more than he said. The blacksmith shoed my horse yesterday. 
He shewed me his library. I clomb the tree, and my brother holp me. What 
he writ, I never read. — Byron. A line was drawed under it. She is possessed 
of a large estate. — possesses — or, owns — She is possessed of a very amiable 
disposition. — has — I have thi3 day parted possession with my finest horse. 
— dispossessed myself of — The accident was not taken notice of. — was not 
noticed. The young aspirant made use of every expedient to iusure success. 
The warning was not taken heed of. The landlady says, our nocturnal carous- 
ings must be put a stop to. Troubles in Kansas have not as yet been put an 
end to. The book was give to me. Had I have known his design, I should 
not have let him have my horse. Had I known . . . . I would not have loaned, 
&c. Had I but have staid at home. You had not ought to have done so. 
— You ought not to have — or, should not have — 

Loud quackt the ducks. It is a fixt fact. The hay was stackt. The 
goods were shipt yesterday. The want of money has checkt trade, and, in 
some instances, entirely stopt it. G-rog is whiskey mixt with water. John 
alit from his horse. The wind swepped by. I stept in. Dipt, equipt, whipt, 
annext, attackt, dropt, stript, crush fc, nurst, elapst, absorpt, linkt, distrest. Be- 
dropt with azure, jet, and gold. — Gay. Rather than thus be overtopt, would 
you not wish their laurels cropt ? — Swift. 

Thou didd'st adore him. — didst — Spirit of freedom! once on Phyle's 
brow thou satt'st. — Byron. Thou mayest — mightest depart. How well thou 
reas'nest — reason'st, time alone can show. Thou rememberest — preservst. 
Thou noticedst. — didst notice. Thou indulgedst — indulged'st — indulg'dst. 
And long he try'd, but try'd in vain. — tried — 

Wast thou chopping wood? (Say, " Were you" &c. ; for, in familiar language, 
the grave forms are not becoming.) Knowest thou where my books are ? Do 
you know, &c. Learns she her lesson ? He readeth pretty well. A drive into 
the country delighteth and invigorates us. The child had just been falling 
over board. — had just fallen — She is loving him. We be all of us from 
York State. I do not think you be in need of silk. 

You might have went yourself. Mary has tore her book. My coat ia 
completely wore out. Having swam the river, he was took by some Indians. 



VERBS. EXERCISES. 193 

He begun well, but ended badly. I never seen any thing of it. The wine 
was all drank up, though I drunk but little. Our candidate run well, though 
he was beat. The tree had fell, and all its branches were broke. The apples 
were shook off by the wind. They done the best they could. I have done 
written. — already written. I have done done it. She was chose on my 
side. Somebody has took my book. The deer had ran into the bottom, and 
swam across the river. The language spoke in this section of country, is not 
the best of English. I seen the limb tore off by the wind. 

Wheat is now being sold for a dollar a bushel. — is now selling — The 
new capitol is now being completed. He gave me an account of all the books 
now being written or published in Europe. My predictions are now being ful- 
filled. He knew nothing of what was then being done. The timbers are 
now being hewed for a new bridge. Another Methodist church is now being 
built in the upper part of the city. The statutes were then being revised. 
My coat is now being made by the tailor. The tailor is now making, &c. His 
anticipations are now being realized. Dramshops are now being closed on 
Sundays. — are closed — Here certain chemical mysteries are being secretly 
carried on by some engineers. — Harper's Magazine. More than 20,000 children 
are being gratuitously educated in this city. — are receiving gratuitous education — 
The daughter is being accomplished at one of the most fashionable schools. 
Two Irishmen are being tried for fighting. — are on trial — Such a poem as 
this is worth being committed to memory. — committing — Whatever is worth 
being done, is worth being done well. The apple-tree will bear being pruned 
more. — more pruning. Such a body can not be overthrown without the cen- 
tre of gravity being lifted. — without lifting — 

3. Choice of Auxiliaries. 

(The following examples come under both the foregoing heads, and may be 
corrected according to either.) 

We will suffer from cold, unless we go better protected. The drowning 
foreigner said, " I will be drowned ; nobody shall help me." Will I find you 

at home ? You find me there. Queen Isabella promised a pension to 

the first seaman that would discover land. (As if he could discover it at plea- 
sure.) I left orders that every one would remain at his station. Shall he 
find any gold there ? (As if it were in your power to grant the finding.) Will 
we find any ? Would we hear a good lecture, if we would go ? Surely good- 
ness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life, and I will dwell in the 
house of the Lord forever. Death was threatened to the first man who would 
rebel. (The overt act was meant.) I would have been much obliged to him, 
if he had have sent it. — had sent it. He should be obliged to you, if you 
would assist him. On the other hand, would they consult their safety, and 
turn back, who should blame them ? We would be ruined, would they dis- 
appoint us. Whoever will marry that woman, will find her a Tartar. You 
may be sure that we will be paid, when it will be in his power. You might 
have known that we would have, been paid, if the treasurer should have allowed 
it We believed all the workmen should be paid, when our employer should 
have received his money. (Perhaps better, — " had received" — ) I had much 
rather do it myself. — would — I desired the lady should walk in. Be that 
as it will, [ shall not despair yet. —as it is — or, as it may be — I would 
not be surprised to see him any day. I would think no reasonable man could 
object to such a proposition. I was thinking what a happy life we would lead 
together. Were I to go with you, I would get a whipping. In that other 
world, what reflections shall not probably arise ! By relieving him, we will 
do him a great favor. I was afraid I would lose all the capital I had invested. 



194 VERBS. EXERCISES. 

4. Promiscuous Use of Different Forms in the Same Connection. 

The promiscuous use of different forms of verbs, in the same connec- 
tion, is inelegant. 

Educating is to develop the faculties of the mind. To refrain from luxu- 
ries, is better than going in debt for them. To strip off old habits, is being 
flayed alive. To profess regard, and acting differently, discovers a base mind. 
Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind. So much ex- 
planation tends to obscure instead of elucidating the subject. — rather than to 
elucidate — or, and not to elucidate — ("It tended rather to confuse than to en- 
lighten his understanding. " — Macaulay.) This had served to increase instead of 
alleviating the inflammation. — Murray. We can find the product of two num- 
bers, by multiplying one of them by the parts into which we choose to separate 
the other, and then add the products together. Fierce as he moved, his silver 
shafts resound. Spelling is easier than to parse or cipher. Scanning is to 
divide poetic hues into their feet. To scan is the dividing of poetic lines into 
their feet. 

He giveth, and he takes away. — Harper's Magazine. He was playing, 
and does yet play. Does he not behave well, and gets his lessons as well as 
any other boy in school ? Did you not borrow so much of me, and promised 
to repay it the next day ? If these remedies be applied, and the patient im- 
proves not, the case may be considered hopeless. If the signature or indorse- 
ment be in the usual form, but the party receiving it knows that it is given by- 
way of suretyship, he must prove the assent of the parties. — Parsons on Con- 
tracts. Thou who didst, call the Furies from the abyss, and round Orestes bade 
them howl and hiss. — Byron. He comforteth the widow, and becomes a father 
to the orphan. For their sake, human law hath interposed in some countries, 
and has endeavored to make good the deficiency of nature. He was either 
misunderstood, or represented in a false light. — or misrepresented. 

5. Improper Omissions or Substitutions. 

When the omission of a verb, or the representing of it by an auxi- 
liary word, would lead to impropriety or obscurity, the verb itself should 
be used. 

The winter is departing, and the wild-geese flying northward. — are flying — 
Be quiet ; for neither he nor I am disposed to harm you. — neither is he } nor 
am 1 — A room has been secured, and all other preparations made. Money 
is scarce, and times hard. The extremes of heat and cold are great ; but the 
climate, nevertheless, salubrious. Our breakfast was ready, and our horses 
saddled. A dollar was offered for it, but five dollars asked. The ground was 
covered with forests, and the ravines completely hidden. I never have and 
never will assist such a man. — have assisted — All those who have or do 
purchase any of these books, shall receive a present. 

As you have made the first, so you may do the rest. — may make — The 
intentions of some of these philosophers might, and probably were, good. His 
sermons must have and certainly should produce a reformation. Neither does 
ho nor any other persons suspect so much dissimulation. No man can be more 
wretched than I. — than I am. I can not go, but I want to. — to go. (Such 
expressions, I think, are sometimes allowable, in light colloquial language; at 
least, the best authors sometimes use them.) Such a law, I believe, has been 
enacted ; but if it has not, I think it ought to. I have not subscribed, nor do I 
intend to. This must be my excuse for seeing a letter which neither inclina- 
tion nor time prompted me to. — Washington. He does pursue the course many 



VERBS. EXERCISES. 2 95 

others have done. — have pursued. No one ever sustained such mortifications 
as I have done to-day. I shall persuade others to take the same remedies for 
their cure that I have. A shower of rain refreshes vegetation more than can 
be done by ever so much watering. 

6. Verbs Improperly made Transitive, Intransitive, or Passive. 

Verbs should not be needlessly made transitive, intransitive, or passive, 
contrary to their general use, or contrary to analogy. 

He had fled his native land. And Pharaoh and his host pursued after them. 
San Francisco connects with the sea, by an entrance one mile wide. A verb 
signifying actively, governs the accusative. — Adaw)s Lat. Gram. Any word 
that will conjugate, is a verb. I must premise with two or three circumstances. 
Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea. It now repents me that I did not 
go. They finally agreed the matter among themselves. Well, I suppose, we 
are agreed on this point. Such as prefer, may rise from their seats. — prefer 
to do so — Sit thee down, and rest thee. We had just entered into the house. 
He is entered on the duties of his office. 

We are swerved far from the policy of our fathers. My friend is returned — 
is arrived. All the flowers are perished. His time of imprisonment was 
nearly elapsed. He is possessed of great talents. The tumult was then en- 
tirely ceased. A few were deserted, and more killed. This is true power : 
it approaches men to Gods. She is become more fretful than she used to be. 
Brutus and Cassius are rid like madmen through the gates of Rome. His 
profits will diminish from yours. She sat herself down on the sofa. He in- 
gratiates with some by traducing others. His estate will not allow of such 
extravagance. You shall not want for any thing while I have it. The car- 
riage is so full as not to admit of another passenger. I will consider of the 
matter, and let you know by morning. Wliat is the difference of meaning f " To 
eat an apple ;" "To eat of an apple." * 

7. Moods and Tenses. 

1. Every verb should be in the mood and tense best adapted to ex- 
press the meaning intended. 

2. In mood and tense, all the verbs of a sentence should be consist- 
ent with one another, and also with the other words of the sentence. 

a. The indicative mood expresses matter of fact, or what is assumed 
as such. 

b. The subjunctive mood is used to express what is both doubtful and 
future, or a mere wish, supposition, or conclusion. 

c. The subjunctive mood sometimes has the sense of the past or the 
pluperfect potential, but it should not take the place of these forms where 
they would be more elegant. 

d. The infinitive leans to the noun, and most frequently expresses the 
purpose, or shows the respect wherein ; the participle rather resembles the 
adjective in sense and construction. 

e. Universal truths are expressed in the present tense, regardless of the 
construction, or the other words used. 

She were as good buried, as married to him. — might as well be — I had bet- 
ter staid where I was. — might have better — You had better have let those 
wasps alone. — might better— He had better remain on the small farm. 
Ji would be, &c. Bad boys had better be without too much money. — should 



196 VERBS. EXERCISES. 

not be indulged with — The Glenn family will try and requite the favor. If 
he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. I shall go into the country to- 
day, unless it rains. If he speak only to displajr his talents, he is unworthy of 
attention. I wish I was at home. He talked to me as if I was a widow. 
Should you come up this way, and I am still here, you need not be assured how 
glad I shall be to see you. — Byrorts Letters. I would be surprised if this mar- 
riage will take place. Make haste, lest the dinner cools. Beware that thou 
sinnest not. If I am at home, I will go with you. If he be safe, I am con- 
tent. If the book be in my library, I will send it immediately. If the book 
is found in my library, I will send it immediately. If the book was in my 
library, I would send it. If the book were in my library, some one must have 
borrowed it. See that every thing is put in the right place. (Right or wrong, 
depending on the sense.) I can not tell whether the opossum be dead or alive. 
Will you tell us who they be ? Try I will, whatsoever oppose. (Say, "op- 
poses, 11 if opposition is considered certain; " may oppose, 11 if doubtful.) He in- 
deed would be a useful policeman, that should detect all the rogues that were 
found in every part of this city. 

If the hand is removed, the air immediately fills the vessel. If. . . .be. . . . 
will immediately fill — or, When the hand is removed . . . .fills, &c. (I think that 
" fills 11 might also be allowed to stand with "be removed, 11 and that it would 
make the expression merely a little more spirited.) If a man smites his serv- 
ant, and he dies, he shall surely be put to death. — smite. . . .and the servant 
die, the man shall — Though he be poor and helpless now, you may rest as- 
sured that he will not remain so. He will maintain his suit, though it costs 
him his whole estate. (Here the latter verb implies, or should imply, both doubt 
and future time.) Though a liar speaks the truth, he will hardly be believed. 
If he was to be elected, he would disgrace the parly. — were elected — Sup- 
pose only one side with the adjacent angles were given, how would you find the 
other parts ? I will keep this, provided there be no better one in your store. 
The work will be carried on vigorously, until it be completed. These hypo- 
crites would deceive,* if it was possible, the Deity himself. If any member ab- 
sents himself, he shall pay a dollar for the use of the Society. The mother 
hurried her little children up a ladder for safety, in case she was overcome by 
the bear. — Pioneer History. 

Saxony was left defenceless, and, if it was conquered, might be plundered. 
— if it should be conquered — Nay. Father Abraham, but if one went unto 
them from the dead, &c. If they did not believe Moses, they will not believe, 
though one rose from the dead. — rise — Though self-government produce 
some uneasiness, it is light when compared with the consequences of vicious 
indulgence. No one engages in that business, unless he aim at reputation, or 
hopes for some singular advantage. Micaiah said, " If thou certainly return in 
peace, then hath not the Lord spoken by me." — thou return — In moving 
bodies, if the quantities of matter are equal, the momenta will be as the veloci- 
ties. If the body A be equal to the body B, but A has twice the velocity of B, 
then A has twice as much motion as B. Ii % a telescope is inverted, objects 
seen through it will be diminished. If a telescope be inverted, objects seen 
through it are diminished. If the two mirrors were separated, it is obvious 
that the number of images will be increased. Was there not another evil, I 
would object. — P. Henry. If the new Constitution takes place, the duties on 
imported articles will go into the general treasury. — A. Hamilton. A corpora- 
tion is liable for the tortuous acts of its agent, though he were not appointed un- 
der seal. — Parsons on Contracts. (Perhaps allowable ; though I should rather 
have said, " even if he was not appointed, 11 or, "though he may not have been 
appointed, 11 &c.) If the debtor pays the debt, he shall be discharged. — Id. But, 
if he have moved out of the State, the demand may be made at his former resi- 
dence. — Id. 



VERBS. EXERCISES. 197 

Tut Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away. I know the family 
more than twenty years. Knowing him for many years, I confidently recom- 
mend him. They continue with us now three days. All the family have been 
much indebted for their present greatness, to their noble ancestor. In the city 
of Mexico are preserved, for hundreds of years, relics of the Aztec monarchy. 
I am now two years in St. Louis. He has lately lost his only daughter. (Al- 
lowable, if there is also reference to the existing bereavement.) This style has 
been formerly much in fashion. He that was dead, sat up, and began to speak. 
I will pay him what I have promised him when I was with him. The work- 
men will finish the work by midsummer. Next Christmas I shall be at school 
a year. This was four years ago next August. — Report of Normal School Con- 
vention. It has been a common prejudice, that persons thus instructed had 
their attention too much divided, and could know nothing perfectly. — lb. I 
have been frequently asked w r hat we teachers did at our meetings. — lb. (1. e., 
at all times.) I should be obliged to him, if he will gratify me. Te will not 
come unto me, that ye might have life. It is proper and humane to wear a 
habit suitable to mourning, while those we loved and honored are mouldering in 
the grave. It will be useless for you to raise so many grapes, unless yo~£ knew 
how to make wine. 

The most glorious hero that ever desolated nations might have mouldered. 
into oblivion, did not some historian take him into favor. — Irving. If I lend, 
you my horse, I should have to borrow one myself. I thought it had been you 
that was bidding. Yet, if I should pay his debts, and get employment for him, 
he will not do any better in future. (Say, " would do," if you refer simply to 
your own conclusion; but I think u will do" may stand, if you mean to express 

greater certainty in regard to his conduct.) To-morrow Saturday. . If we 

would examine into the springs of action in the prudent and the imprudent, we 
shall find that they move upon very different principles. I was going out to 
tea at dear mother's to-morrow. — Mrs. Caudle. (Allowable; for it expresses 
merely a past determination.) I told him that the cars leave in half an hour — 
left in half an hour. — would leave — (The first expression is probably allow- 
able, as referring to an established order of things, — to a certain, punctual, daily 
occurrence.) As I never saw a play before, it was very entertaining to me. 
All church members should be pure in heart, that they might not be a reproach 
to Christianity. When I shall have heard from you, I will write immediately. 
As soon as he shall bring the horses, we shall leave. When the workmen 
completed our new house, we removed into it. As soon as our new house had 
been completed, we removed into it. 

Our teacher told us that the air had weight. Prof. Silliman's experiments 
plainly proved that the gas was combustible. He showed clearly what powers 
belonged to Congress. He insisted that the Constitution was certain and fixed, 
and contained the permanent will of the people, and was the supreme law, and 
could be revoked only by the authority that made it. — Kent. Keats said, that 
beauty was truth, and truth was beauty. The doctor said that fever always 
produced thirst. Plato maintained that the Deity was the soul of the world. 
Lie remarked that the word had several different meanings. He insisted that 
the article was a mere adjective. If I should use the clause, " When spring 
returns," you would perceive that something more was wanting to make a state- 
ment. Without the name, I could not have told that this was a picture of 
him. I asked the quack whether calomel was not his remedy for every dis- 
ease. He knew not that I was a foreigner. When I studied the classics, I 
observed that many a moral lurked in the mythology of the ancients. I have 
always thought that little was ever gained by marrying for wealth. A late 
writer on horses supposed that a horse could perform the labor of six men. H© 
said it was a great misfortune, that men of letters seldom looked on the practical 



198 VERBS. EXERCISES. 

side of life. He said it was 125 miles from St. Louis to Jefferson City. Where 
did you say the church was ? for I wish to hear its minister. 

At Athens, he who killed another accidentally, was not deemed guilty. He 
is supposed to be born about three centuries ago. To be disappointed by him 
now, would have broken her heart. I very much wished to have gone, but 
mother could not spare me. "We hoped to have had the pleasure of a visit 
from you. I intended to have sent your horse home yesterday, that you might 
not have been obliged to send for him yourself. I feared I should have lost it 
before I reached home. We have done no more than it was our duty to have 
done. It would have given me great pleasure to see you. (Allowable.) 
How could you forbear to have punished him ? It was a pity I was the only 
child ; for my mother had fondness of heart enough to have spoiled a dozen. — 
Irving. I was then disposed to have given twice as much. I was under no 
obligation to have adhered to a party that deserted its own principles. The 
furniture was to have been sold at auction. When I saw into her coquetry, 
thinks I to myself I will let you know that you are not the only woman in the 
world. (Say, "thought I to myself;" yet "thinks" as a light, colloquial ex- 
pression, is not without good authority to sustain it.) Well, says I, there is, 
after all, much genuine goodness and solid happiness in the world. What is the 
difference in meaning? "Achilles is said to be buried at the foot of this hill;" 
"Achilles is said to have been buried at the foot of this hill." 

8. Persons and Numbers. 
Every finite verb must agree with its subject, in person and number. 

I called, but you was not at home. Was you there ? My outlays is 
greater than my income. I says to him, Be your own friend. He dare not 
say it to my face. Such a temper need to be corrected. You who has earned 
it, is best entitled to it. Thou who are the author of life, can restore it. 
thou pale orb that silent shines. — Burns. Thou art the friend that hast often 
relieved me. Thou art a friend indeed that has so often relieved me. Thou 
can pardon us if thou will. That which yourself has asked. 'Tis so ; myself 
has seen it. I, who has done most of the work, should receive most of the 
pay. The molasses are excellent. His pulse are beating too fast. If a man 
have built a house, the house is his. Unless better bail have been given, he 
shall not be set at liberty. There are not many children in this city whose 
education have been entirely neglected. Has the horses been fed ? What 
signifies fair words without good deeds ? What have become of your promises ? 
What avails the best maxims if we do not live suitably to them ? On each 
side of the river was ridges of hills. Not more than one man was hurt. From 
this Indian girl has sprung some of the first families of Virginia. Six is too 
many to ride in the canoe at one time. Hence comes so many unhappy 
marriages. 

There seems to be no others included. There was more than one of us. 
There's two or three of us. There appears to have been some buffaloes here 
last night. There was no memoranda kept of the sales. The victuals was 
cold. The wages was paid. There is no tidings. Th have two sounds. Ph 
are pronounced like /. In the following words, sion are pronounced zhun. 
Boys are a common noun. Here as well as are used in the sense of a con- 
junction. 

Every one of the witnesses testify to the same thing. Every body are dis- 
posed to help him. Every twenty-four hours affords to us day and night. 
Every ten tens make3 one hundred. Many an Indian were laid low on that 
day. Not one of them whom thou sees clothed in purple, are completely happy. 
One, added to nineteen, make twenty. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits 



VERBS. EXERCISES. 199 

delight some persons. Enough of the corn and potatoes have been sold, to pay 
the debt. The derivation of these words are uncertain. Each one of us have 
as much as he can do. Each one of the vowels represent several sounds. 
Either one of the schools afford facilities sufficiently good. Neither of us have 
a dollar left. Neither of these hypotheses are well founded, though they have 
each of them their advocates. "Which one of these soldiers were wounded at 
Monterey ? A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. Six months 7 in- 
terest are due on the bonds. The sum of twenty thousand dollars have been 
expended on this bridge. A hundred thousand dollars of revenue is now in 
the treasury. The spirit of our forefathers still animate their descendants. 
The expense for repairs render it necessary to raise the tuition. This poem, 
together with those which accompany it, were written several years ago. The 
mother, with her daughter, have spent the summer here. The captain, with 
most of the other officers, were killed. The captain and, &c. 

You are not the first one that have been deceived in the same way. She is 
one of the women that is always hankering after towns, crowds, and parties. He 
is one of the preachers that belongs to the church militant, and takes consider- 
able interest in politics. The book is one of the best that ever was written. 
Such accommodations as was necessary, was provided. Goethe and Schiller 
are men of such genius as have but seldom appeared in the human race. It is 
either the rain or the sun that cause this corn to grow so fast. It is the rain 
and the sun that this corn to grow so fast. 

A committee were appointed to examine the accounts. The committee dis- 
agrees. In France, the peasantry goes barefoot, while the middle sort makes 
use of wooden shoes. The greater part of the audience was pleased. The 
greater part of the exports consist of cotton. The public is respectfully in- 
vited. The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. The jury was not unan- 
imous. All the world is spectators of your conduct. The regiment consist 
of a thousand men. There go a gang of deer. The legislature have adjourned. 
Never were any other nation so infatuated as the Jewish people. Generation 
after generation pass away. The company were chartered last winter. (Al- 
ways consider carefully whether the reference is to the individuals composing 
the group, or to the group itself. There is plainly a difference between the two 
in regard to states or actions.) The corporation is individually responsible. 
At least half of the members was absent. The higher class looks with scorn on 
those below them. Our youth is not everywhere properly educated. The 
number of inhabitants in the United States now amount to thirty-two millions. 
The Society hold their meetings on Fridays. The House were called to order. 
The railroad company was rather uneasy — were rather unsafe. The multitude 
eagerly pursues pleasure. This sort of men is always sensitive. Men of this 
sort, &c. Five pair was sold. Fifty head was drowned. Our horse was 
routed with great slaughter by the Russian foot. Our cavalry. . . .infantry. 
An exploring party that was sent to the north, were appalled by the aspect ol 
the Appalachian chain, and pronounced the mountains impassable. — Geo. Ban- 
croft (Structure seldom found, but allowable, I think ; for the one verb refers 
to the party as a whole, and the other refers rather to the individuals com- 
posing it.) 

8 apples is no part of 12 pears. 8 are what part of 12 ? (If such a subject 
is viewed as an abstract whole, the verb should be singular ; if viewed in refer- 
ence to the composing units, or to concrete individuals, the verb should be plu- 
ral.) As 2 are to 4, so 4 are to 8. 4 times 8 is 32. — Bullions. If 4. of a sheep is 
worth | of a calf; and if f of a calf is worth f of a hog, how many sheep are 8 
hogs worth ? (When a numeral subject must be read plurally, I should prefer 
the plural verb.) W^hat part of 1 A. is 18 R. 18 P. 3 sq. yds. ?— D. P. Colburn. 
(I should rather say, "are;" for, though such a subject must be viewed as a 



200 VERBS. EXERCISES. 

whole, it does not therefore necessarily require the verb to be singular; as, "The 
miUe, horse, and cow, \ were sold for $200." Furthermore, the subject must be 
read plwrally. 

Mary and her cousin was at our house last week. Neither Mary nor her 
cousin were at our house last week. When sickness, infirmity, or misfortune, 
afflict us, the sincerity of friendship is proved. So much of ability and merit 
are seldom found. Enough ingenuity and labor has been bestowed, tc make 
the machine a good one. When the memories and hopes of youth is embittered 
by past misfortunes, future happiness and usefulness becomes uncertain. Man's 
happiness or. misery are, in a great measure, put into his own hands. Time 
and tide waits for no man. What signifies the care and counsel of preceptors, 
when youth think they have »o need of assistance ? Wisdom, virtue, and 
happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. The planetary system, bound- 
less space, and immense ocean, affects the mind with sensations of astonishment. 
In all her movements, there is grace and dignity. And so was also you and I. 
Her beauty, intelligence, and amiability, was praised even by her own sex. 
Four and two is six, and one is seven. John, you, and I, am going to visit my 
uncle. The legality and utility of this law has never been called in question. 
Hill and dale doth boast thy blessing. What is the gender, person, and num- 
ber of the following words ? In unity consists the welfare and happiness of 
every society. 

There was not a little wit and sarcasm in his reply. There is a right and a 
wrong in human actions. There was a man and a woman on our ship, who 
were natives of Borneo. There seems to be war and disturbance in Kansas. 
Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. On the same square 
has since been built a large hotel and a museum — a large warehouse and store. 
Hence comes the early decay and misery of such persons. Both vocal and in- 
strumental music was heard every night. This and that house belongs to him. 
In every room there was a large and a small bed. In him were happily blended 
true dignity with gentleness of manner. 

Either Thomas or George have to stay at home. The violin or the banjo, 
played by some merry old negro, beguile the summer evenings. Neither the 
syntax nor the general scope of the paragraph are obvious. Neither Holmes, 
Forbes, nor Jenkins, were classmates of mine. When or, nor, or as well as, 
connect the nominatives, &c. The vanity, the ambition, the pride, or the sen- 
sitiveness of some men, keep them always in trouble. Luxurious living and 
excessive pleasure begets a languor and satiety that destroys all enjoyment. 
4t The Sword, the Needle, and the Pen," have been selected by her as the sub- 
ject of her composition. It is honor, false honor, that produce so many quar- 
rels. What black despair, what horror fill his mind ! — Murray. That dis- 
tinguished patriot and statesman have retired from public life. To be moderate 

in our views, and to proceed temperately the best ways to insure success. 

To be of pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence toward others, and to 
cultivate piety toward G-od, is the sure means of becoming happy. To live 
soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all men. To do unto all men 
as we would that they, under similar circumstances, should do unto us, consti- 
tute the great principle of virtue. To be old and destitute, are truly deplorable. 
To possess true merit and yet be humble and obliging, are the true way to gain 
the esteem of the world. To buy such a lot, and build such a house upon it, 
require money. That it is our duty to relieve wretchedness and check oppres- 
sion, admit not of any doubt. That a belle should be vain, or a fop ignorant, 
are not to be wondered at. 

Every person are hereby notified to pay his or her taxes. All persons .... 
their taxes. (It is sometimes better to change the subject than to change the 
verb.) The horse, saddle, and bridle, was sold for $100. The horse, with the 



VERBS. EXERCISES. 201 

saddle, &c. Every one of these houses have been lately built. Great pains 
has been taken to make the work accurate. Great care, &e. The sagacity and 
learning of that boy surpasses the rest. In sagacity and learning, that hoy, &c. 
At the camp-meeting were all manner of folks and viands. — all kinds — The 
doctors' and mothers' giving calomel for every little illness, is one cause of so 
many puny women and children. The practice of giving calomel, &c. There is 
an elegance and simplicity in Addison's style, that will always please. — an 
elegance, as well as a simplicity — or, an elegance, a simplicity, in — The clerk, 
as well as the captain, own the entire boat. — and — He, and not I, am 
responsible. I, and not he, is responsible. Not honor, but emoluments, have 
induced him to accept the offer. Economy, as well as industry, are necessary 
to make us wealthy. The land, as well as the personal property, were sold 
at auction. 

Books, and not pleasure, occupies his mind. Pleasure, and not books, oc- 
cupy his mind. Not honor, but emoluments, has induced him to accept the 
offer. Not only the sails, but also the mainmast, were torn away by the storm. 

He, not less than you, deserve punishment. He, and his brother too, 

in the battle of Buena Yista. The father, and the son also, imprisoned 

for many years. No one but yourself and the lecturer believe such doctrines. 
Nothing, save the chimneys of the boat, were visible. {Are both the following 
sentences correct ? " Happiness, honor, yea, life itselfj are sacrificed in the pursuit 
of riches ;" "Happiness, honor, yea, life itself is sacrificed in the pursuit of riches." 
What is the difference in meaning ?) Every tall tree and every steeple were 
blown down. Every leaf, every twig, and every drop of water, teem with 
delighted existence. Every man's heart and temper is productive of much in- 
ward joy or misery. Every person and every occurrence were viewed in the 
most unfavorable light. Every seven days makes a week. No wife, no mother, 
and no child, were there to comfort him. No lazy boy or girl love their books. 
Every skiff and canoe were loaded almost to the water's edge. Here lie buried 
every chief and every warrior of the tribe. 

For the sake of brevity and force, one or more words is sometimes omitted. 
Neither beauty, wealth, nor talents, was injurious to his modesty. Whether 
one or more persons was concerned in the transaction, does not appear. Neither 
he nor }rou was mentioned. Either thou or I art much mistaken. Neither 
he nor I intends to be present. P]ither you or James have spilt my ink. Either 
they or I are responsible. Neither thou nor I art to blame. Neither thou art 
to blame, nor am I. The forest, or the hunting-grounds, was deemed the prop- 
erty of the tribe. (Here "forest" seems to be rejected for the more appropriate 
term "hunting-grounds" which, therefore, becomes the nominative to the verb 
"was," and this should accordingly be "were") Lafayette Place, or Gardens, 
occupy several acres. (Here " Gardens" is merely parenthetical.) Neither 
the potatoes nor the corn are as good as usual. (Make the verb agree with the 
nearest nominative or the most important.) Riding on horseback, or rowing a 
skiff, are good exercises. His food were locusts and wild honey. (What am I 
chiefly speaking ofj — his food, or locusts and wild honey ?) The quarrels of 
lovers is a renewal of love. The difference between 8 and 12 are 4. Eight 
apples is the difference between twelve apples and twenty. Five dimes is half 
a dollar. The timber are walnut, elm, mulberry, and linden. — is — or, con- 
sists of — A great cause of sickness in cities are filthiness and bad food. 

Two parallel horizontal fines is the sign of equality. The sign of equality 
are two parallel horizontal lines. — consists of — First, ascertain what is the 
texture, color, and weight ? The few dollars which he owes me, is a matter 
of small consequence. Twelve single things, viewed as an aggregate, is called 
a dozen. Divers philosophers hold that the lips is parcel of the mind. — Shak. 
Said the burning Candle, " My use and beauty is my death." Yirtue and 
mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. To do good to them that hate us, 

9* 



202 VERBS. EXERCISES. 

and on no occasion to seek revenge — —the duty of a Christian. Temperance, 
more than medicines, are the proper means of curing many diseases. What a 
fortune does the thick lips owe, if he can carry her thus. — Shah. (Proper ; for 
" thick lips 11 is here put for the Moor Othello.) Here is the Republican, the 
Herald, and the Leader. — Newspaper-boy. (Proper ; for the design is to keep 
the objects distinct.) On a sudden, off breaks the limb, and down tumbles 
negro, raccoon, and all. (Proper; for the design is to represent the objects as 
most intimately united — so intimately that they may appear as but one thing.) 
Proper, or not? " A coach and six is in our time never seen, except as a part of 
some pageant." — Macaulay. "Two thousand a year was a large revenue for a 
barrister." — Id. 

9. Participles and Infinitives. 

1. The participle or the infinitive should never be so used as to make 
the sentence clumsy, obscure, or ambiguous. 

2. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the active verbs bid, 
make, need, hear, | let, see, feel, and dare ; and occasionally after a few 
other verbs that are like some of these in sense. 

3. Since the participle and the infinitive are much alike in sense and 
construction, great care should always be taken to select that which is 
more appropriate. 

4. A participial noun should never be so used that it may be mistaken 
for an adjective, a participle, or a part of a compound verb. 

5. When a participial noun from a transitive verb is limited by a 
preceding article, adjective, or possessive, it generally becomes intran- 
sitive, and requires of after it. 

6. When a participial noun from a transitive verb is not limited by 
a preceding word, it may generally govern the objective case. 

7. Of the four modes of expression, — the ordinary noun, the particip- 
ial noun, the infinitive, and the substantive clause, — great care should be 
taken to select the most appropriate the language affords. 

"We saw the lady while passing down the street. (Who passed?) He 
pleaded the case in such a manner as to become tedious and disagreeable. 
(Change the entire sentences if necessary.) I think of you alone more frequently 
than when surrounded by others. While sleeping under a large tree, my horse 
was stolen. I heard the noise of a carriage, eating my supper. 

You will please send them back immediately, if you can not sell them. We 
ought not speak ill of others, unless there is a necessity for it. If I bid you to 
study, dare you to be idle ? To go I could not, but to remain I would not. 
That old miser was never seen give a cent to the poor. Not a single complaint 
was heard escape the lips of any individual. We made her to believe it. She 
was made believe it. W r e durst not to approach any nearer to the elephant. 
His father compelled him return to his school. It is better live on a little than 
outlive a great deal. Will you please answer my letter immediately ? I would 
have you read all the books on the subject. 1 have known young men spend 
more in a week than they earned in a year. 

Exceptions. — " My horse bids fair to take the premium ; "He was let go;" 
" I dared him to bet ;" "I feel it to be my duty ;" " How could you make out to 
get along?" "She needed only to have told us that she was unwell;" " I can 
not see to write this letter," — are all correct or allowable. "He can show his 
moral courage, only by daring do right." — G. Brown. Mr. Brown has written 
this sentence for good English; but, to my ear, "by daring to do right" sounds 
better. 



VERBS. EXERCISES. 203 

I would not have let her gone to such a place. — go — He neglected 
doing his duty. — to do — He failed reciting his lesson. I intended giving 
him a piece of my mind. He chose building in another place. I preferred 
staying at home. You have no right meddling with my property. No nation 
should be allowed interfering with the domestic affairs of another. We should 
never undertake doing too much at once. I never desired having such a man 
for a friend. No one likes being in debt. It is easier asking questions than 
answering them. G-oing to law is giving the matter in dispute to the lawyers. 
I was about sending for you when you arrived. Solomon says, " It is as sport 
to a fool doing mischief" There is no telling what he would do if left to him- 
self. It is impossible to tell what, &c. The being branded with such a piece of 
iron, would make the horse run away. To brand the horse, &c. We considered 
ourselves to be badly treated. He was seen to ride along the road. Relieving 
misery is a pleasure to the good. Compromising conflicting opinions, willever 
be necessary in a large republic. . What prevents our going immediately? 
— v£ from going — What is to prevent us going together ? I had bolted the 
door to prevent it being opened — its being opened. What prevents such 
worthless fellows passing for fine gentlemen but the good sense of other men ? — 
Addison. The mother's good sense prevents the daughter's having her head 
made giddy by fops, beaus, and riches. 

His being industrious and frugal will make him rich. His industry, &c. 
Paying visits will be losing time. Barter is exchanging different commodities. 
Is not this abusing the privileges of the House? The mind soon becomes 
weary by its being intensely applied to one subject. The most important busi- 
ness is determining the boundary line. 

There is a strong necessity for us being more frugal. This measure is taking 
a bold step. This punctuation is giving the sentence a different meaning from 
the true one. Such a law would not be giving all the States an equal right tc 
the territories. Scanning is dividing poetic lines into their feet. The highway 
of the upright is departing from evil. His whole speech was begging tha 
question. His being acquainted with influential men was of great service to 
him. What is called a compound pronoun, from its usually representing two 
words. — because it — She was much opposed to him rioting with bad 
companions. Your being left was altogether accidental. That you were, &c. 
The common saying of every one's being the architect of his own fortune, is 
hardly true. Nothing that she has done, can justify your having treated her 
so contemptuously. — you in having treated — There are not many instances 
of creditors not being disposed to be oppressive to their debtors. — instances in 
which — Her lameness was caused by a horse's running away with her. — by 
a horse that ran — It is not proper to speak of a river's emptying itself. — river 
as emptying — We were speaking of the congregation's being so much affected 
by the sermon. The servant's being negligent has caused the losing of the 
horse. In order to our correctly understanding the subject, let us suppose, &c. 
The fact of he being a partner — of him being a partner, gave credit to the firm. 

By speaking of truth, you will command esteem. By the obtaining wisdom, 
you will command esteem. By obtaining of wisdom, you will command es- 
teem. By reading of good books, his mind became improved. Learning of 
languages is difficult. It is an overvaluing ourselves, to reduce every thing to 
our own standard of judging. Poverty turns our attention too much upon the 
supplying our wants ; riches, upon the enjoying luxuries. This was a cowardly 
forsaking his party. By the vigorously pursuing his studies, he will soon be 
competent. By vigorously pursuing his, &c. We were agreeably entertained 
by the visiting of our friends. — by a visit from — or, by a visit to — This 
money was used in feathering of his own nest. Luxury, indolence, and a fan- 
tastic sense of propriety, are the chief causes which tend to the enervating and 



204 VERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 

enfeebling our women. The taking things by force is apt to produce reaction. 
This was in fact a converting the deposits to his own use. The placing your- 
self in the most conspicuous situation will tend to render you contemptible. 
(The infinitive is sometimes preferable to the participle, and the ordinary noun 
is sometimes preferable to either.) 

Multiplication is the repeating a number a given number of times. — is 
the repetition of-~ Emphasis is the laying a greater stress on some par- 
ticular word or words. The cutting evergreens for Christmas was fashion- 
able when I was a boy. The saying what we think, is not always prudent. 
To say what, &c. The inviting them will not put us to any more trouble. The 
not having invited them to the party, she afterwards regretted. That she had 
not, &c. There is no keeping such children in the house. — no keeping of — 
or, It is impossible to keep, &c. A more careful guarding the prisoners would 
have prevented this accident. For the better regulating our governments in 
the territories. This amounts to a full relinquishing her dowry. His neglect- 
ing my affairs, has been very injurious to me. The separating large numbers 
into periods, facilitates the reading them correctly. Is each of the following sen- 
tences correct 7 " Your building so fine a house, may excite the envy of your 
neighbors;" " My seeing him, will be sufficient ;" "My seeing of him, will be 
sufficient;" "My having seen him, will be sufficient;" "My having seen of him, 
will be sufficient ;" " The soldiers deserted on account of the captain's ordering 
him to be whipped ;" " The soldiers deserted on account of the captain's order- 
ing of him to be whipped." 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1 & 2m In Old English, be was often used where other parts of this verb are 
now used. " In other pleasures there is satiety ; and, soon after they be used, their 
verdure fadeth." — Bacon. Verbs differing in sense, are sometimes nearly iden- 
tical either in their primitive forms or in their derived forms, as set, sit ; overflowed, 
overflown: and hence they are often ridiculously misapplied. " I can but go," im- 
plies that I can do nothing more ; " I can not but go," implies that I can not do 
otherwise, but most go: hence both forms should be retained, since they are both 
needed. Dare, let, need, and ought, are considered principal verbs, and not auxilia- 
ries, though they seem to be in a middle or transition state, especially need, which 
is sometimes found without inflection. " She need not make herself uneasy." — 
Irving. Can not should rather be written as two words, unless we mean to prevent 
not from qualifying some other word than the verb ; as, " You cannot consistently 
deny it." 

When the ordinary passive form implies completion, habit, or custom, the word 
being is sometimes inserted to express continuance. " To other stations where the 
new rifle-practice was being introduced.'''' — Atlantic Monthly. "The materials of 
discontent were gradually being concentrated.'''' — lb. " The evaporation dish of the 
the philosopher was being used by an irreverent sparrow." — Harper's Magazine. 
"Your friend is being buried." — lb. Such forms are avoided by the best writers. 
" While these affairs were transacting in Europe." — Bancroft. " Where a new 
church is now building.' 1 '' — E.Everett. "The medley of monuments with which 
Kensing-green is filling.'''' — E. Sargent. "The shocking neologism, 'The ship is 
being caulked.'' " — G. P. Marsh. We should combine the simple present or perfect 
participle with the auxiliary, or, if neither of these forms will give the sense, use 
the active voice, or recast the sentence. Our language occasionally needs forms to 
express in the continuative passive sense those verbs whose perfect participles im- 
ply completion ; and, as necessity makes slaves of us all, the foregoing uncouth 
passive forms are rather gaining ground. But, if the perfect participle implies 
completion, the compound participle also does • therefore, is being built, for in- 
stance, is literally the same in time as is built, and has the progressive sense merely 
by adoption. The uncouth forms are used only in the present and the past indica- 
tive ; for such forms as had been, being built, might be being built, might have been 
being built, die of sheer ugliness. , 



VERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 205 

3. So very often are the auxiliaries needed and misapplied, that the following 
full explanation will perhaps not seem too lengthy to the reader. "Shall I go ?" 
Is it your wish or determination ? Are you willing? "Shall I find you when I 
return ?" Will it come to pass? Will you have it so ? " Will I go ?" Ordinarily 
absurd, unless taken up and repeated as another's question. "Shall you go ?" Is 
it so determined ? Will it take place ? " Will he go ?" Is he willing to go? Is 
he likely to go ? "Shall we be married ?" Are you willing? Will it take place ? 
(Where the plural is not given, it agrees with the corresponding singular.) "Shall 
I be elected?" "Shall I suffer?' 7 Will it come to pass ? Is that to be my fate ? 
"Will you be elected ? Are you willing ? More frequently, Will it come to pass ? 
"Shall you be elected?" Will it come to pass? (Seldom so used in the West.) 
"Shall he be elected ?" "Shall he suffer ?" Is that the determination ? " Will he 
be elected ?" " Will he suffer ?" Will it come to pass ? 

"I shall go." " I shall be elected." "I shall suffer." It will come to pass — 
I foretell it. " I will go." " I will be elected." " I will suffer." I am willing ; 
I promise it ; I am resolved upon it. It is in my power, and I am determined to 
have it so. " You shall go." " You shall be elected." " You shall suffer." It is 
so determined. It is to be so in spite of your will or of obstacles. " He shall go." 
"He shall be elected." " He shall suffer." The same in sense as the preceding. 
" You will go." " You will love him." "You will come to this at last." It w3l 
come to pass, and probably be voluntary. "You will be elected." "You will 
suffer." It will come to pass. " He will go." " He will assist you." " He will 
be elected." "He will suffer." Same as the second person. "It will cost blood 
and treasure." Simple futurity. " It shall cost neither." Determination to pre- 
vent. " Hickory will make a good fire." It is adapted thereto. " This vnll do." 
" This will never do." Adaptation ; adequacy. " I will be pleased with his com- 
pany." I will try to make it agreeable to myself, even if it should tend to be other- 
wise. " I shall be pleased with his company." It will be agreeable, whatever it 
be. Will may denote a future certainty, depending on ability ; shall, a future cer- 
tainty assuming the ability. "Philip will hang Astor, if he [Philip] takes the 
city." — Ancient History. " I shall then trample on all those forms in which wealth 
and dignity intrench themselves." — Chatham. Shall, being authoritative, is some- 
times preferred in emphatic prediction. "It shall come in empire's groans, burn- 
ing temples, trampled thrones." — Groly. 

"If any one shall subscribe." " Whoever shall subscribe." Simply, if it take 
place. "If anyone will subscribe. ''Whoever will subscribe." "If you will 
subscribe." " When you will subscribe." " Unless we will give our consent." 
To be willing, and do so. In this sense, shall or should often refers to the overt 
act ; and will or would, simply to the intention. I would say, "I promise that I 

will 'you shall he shall" ; " I resolved that I would -you should he 

should" ; where I have or mean to use authority : " I believe that I shall 

you will he will" ; " I believe that I should you would he would" ; 

"I assured him that you would he would" ; where the matter is not in my 

control. And so in the other persons : " You are determined that I shall you 

will he shall" ; " You were determined that I should that you would 

that he should" . " He is determined that I shall that you shall that he 

will" ; "He was determined that I should that you should — — that he 

would" . "You think 1 shall suffer you shall he will" ; "You 

thought that I should suffer that you should that he would"- . "He 

thinks that I shall be killed that you will that he shall or will that our 

friend will' 1 ■. " He hoped that I should be sent that you should that he 

himself should or vjould that our friend would" . " He requested that our 

friend should be sent for." 

"Do you think I shall go?" That it will come to pass. "Do you think I 
should go?" That I ought to go ; or, that my going would take place, if certain 
things should happen, whether I might be willing or not. " Did you think that I 
should go ?" That it would come to pass ; or, that it was my duty to go. " Do 
you think, or did you think, that I should have gone ?" That it would have hap- 
pened ; or, that it was my duty to go. " Do you think I will t — I would f" " Did 
you think I would?" refer to my will — my motives. " I am surprised that he will 
go." At his going under such circumstances. "lam surprised that he would go." 
From what I know of his general character. " I am surprised that he shall go." 
That it is so determined, "I am surprised that he should go." I am surprised at 



206 VERBS. OBSERVATIONS, 

the mere occurrence of the act, without reference to any motives or necessity. 
" John was afraid that he would not succeed." " John was afraid that he should 
not succeed." The former implies a stronger reference to the adaptation of the 

means to the end ; the latter implies more of chance. " I, you, he, it, should" . 

It is a matter of duty, right, or propriety. " I, you, he, it, should .... if" . 

Something to take place on condition ; or else, the same as the preceding. "Should 

I, you, he, it ... . then" ; " If I, you, he, it, should then" . If it were to 

take place. . . .then . " I, you, he, she, it, would" . Inclination, proneness, 

custom, tendency ; or, consequence, result. " If I would study." If I were will- 
ing. "If I should study." Were it to take place; a mere supposition. "If I 
would have written." I was unwilling, and did not. " If I should have written." 
Had I done so. " If I would betray him, he should forsake me," is very different 
from " If I should betray him, he would forsake me." So, " If he should leave 
you, you would suffer ;" " If he ivould leave you, you should suffer." " If it would 
rain." Wished. " If it should rain." Perhaps not wished. " He was to remain 
until he should be sent for." Bare event. " Until he might be sent for." Greater 
contingency ; or possibility. In a moral sense, can is a little stronger than may. 
" I may not do so." I have not permission, or it would be improper. " I can not 
violate my oath." My conscience forbids it. " It must have been so." Present 
necessity of belief. "Had the river risen, he must have drowned;" pluperfect. 
Past necessity. 

Most of the auxiliary verbs usually set forth the act or state as not absolutely cer- 
tain ; but as tinged with allusion to the condition, time, or circumstances, on which it 
depends, and as expressing, accordingly, a corresponding degree of certainty. Hence, 
they may sometimes be used to express softened commands or assertions. " You 
will not hurt him, will you?" for, "Do not hurt him." " It would seem so" [if 
you should examine the evidence ; or rather, the evidence tends to persuade one to 
this belief ], for, " It seems so." u It should seem so" [from the deference natu- 
rally due to evidence of such authority], for, " It seems so." " I should think not" 
[from what you tell me], for, "I think not." " I should hardly believe it" [were 
it told tome; or, scarcely any thing is sufficient to cause such belief], for, "I 
hardly believe it." Sometimes the sense of the auxiliaries in the potential mood is 
nearly lost, and the mood becomes almost indicative in meaning. "He knew not 
how iar the ramifications of the conspiracy might extend." — D. Webster. — did ex- 
tend. When the time is sufficiently indicated without the auxiliary, then the 
auxiliary must denote something else, or be superfluous. "When he will come ;" 
" When I shall have arrived.' 1 '' If will and shall were here inserted merely to ex- 
press the time, the expressions would have been better without them. " When he 
comes;" "When I have arrived." Will, when put into such clauses, relates 
directlyto the will of the subject ; and shall implies determination, resolution, 
contingency. "They should remember that England entered India from the sea, 
and that until she shall have been subdued on that element, it would be idle to think 
of dispossessing her of her Oriental supremacy." — Atlantic Monthly. That is, un- 
til resolved upon and accomplished. The author rather believes or intimates that 
this is not easy or likely to be done. 

6. In imitation of a French idiom, the passive forms of such verbs as become, 
arrive, rejoice, sit, &c, were formerly much used; but the present tendency is, to 
prefer the active forms. Mr. Brown says, that a few verbs are yet thus used, to 
signify that a person's own mind is the cause that actuates him ; as, " He was re- 
solved, on going to the city to reside ;" " He is inclined to go ;" " He is determined 
to go." When a passive sense can not be conceived, or when the active form 
seems equally proper, this should generally be preferred. Thus, "I incline to 
think," is now generally preferred to " I am inclined to think." Mistake, in the 
passive form, is still in good use; as, "I am mistaken:" but the active form is 
also used ; as, " I mistake : it is your bull that has killed one of my oxen." 
"You are mistaken," is probably a delicate euphemism for, "I misconceive your 
meaning." 

7. The selection of moods and tenses is sometimes a matter of great nicety, 
especially in argumentative discourse. The conditional present indicative ex- 
presses doubt only. The conditional present subjunctive expresses both doubt 
and future time ; and the conclusion belonging to it, is generally expressed in the 
future indicative. Indicative forms are sometimes preferred as being a little 
sprightlier, or as relating to permanent or universal truths. " I will keep it till 



VERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 207 

he returns." I am sure lie will return. " I will keep it till he return" I doubt 
that he will ever return. " If Congress have not the granted right, it can not exer- 
cise it." Said before the Constitution was made. " If Congress has not the granted 
right, it can not exercise it." Said after the Constitution was made. " If the 
government of Virginia passes a law contrary to the bill of rights, it is nugatory." 
— P. Henry. At any time ; and there is no doubt as to the conclusion. " If gentle- 
men are willing to run the hazard, let them run it." — Id. They seem to be quite 
willing. The orator referred to existing facts then before his mind ; but had he 
not been aware of the existence of any such willingness at the time, and supposed 
it merely probable, he would have said, " If gentlemen be willing," etc. " If a 
piece of paper be laid on the table of the discharger, and a powerful shock directed 
through it, it will be torn in pieces." — Arnot. "^Be laid" accords best with "will be 
torn." "If a fresh quantity of water is thrown upon the remaining fragments, it is 
absorbed with a hissing sound." — Id. "Is thrown" accords best with "is ab- 
sorbed ;" besides, the former verb here denotes what is often done, and the latter, 
what certainly follows. " If the earth is at H, and the planet at I, the outermost 
satellite will be in conjunction with its primary." — Bowditch. Allowable ; for will 
expresses merely the natural consequence. " If an object is [or be] in the principal 
focus, it will appear brighter." The present subjunctive is now applied merely to 
future and contingent matter of fact, rather than to present matter of fact of which 
our knowledge is future and contingent. " If this be true, I shall," &c. It either 
is true, or is not true ; but there is a mental contingency in regard to ascertaining 
its truth hereafter. "If this is true," etc., is better authorized. And, " If this is 
treason, make the most of it." The time involved in the tenses, may relate to the 
speaker, to the doer, to the beginning, state, or end of the act, or to any of its cir- 
cumstances ; and hence the many niceties in regard to tenses. The perfect infini- 
tive is antecedent, in time, to the leading verb ; hence verb3 of hoping, intending, 
commanding, &c, generally require the present; but it is wrong to teach that 
none of them ever admit the perfect. " Dr. Bush hopes to have laid the foundation 
of a system which, if adopted, will," &c. — G. Brown. (Correct.) 

8. Sometimes the form of the subject, but more commonly the sense, controls 
the form of the verb. When a verb relates to two nominatives, of which one is a 
predicate-nominative, it is not always easy to decide which should be considered 
the subject. If both stand after the verb, the nearer one is its subject. When the 
arrangement is otherwise, the student, if he has been well drilled in Analysis, will 
generally be able to determine without much difficulty. When two or more infini- 
tives, or infinitive phrases, or substantive clauses, are connected by and, it is also 
sometimes difficult to decide whether the verb should be singular or plural. The 
writer or speaker best knows his own meaning : let him consider whether he refers 
to all as one thing, or whether he refers to each, and accordingly make the f erb sin- 
gular or plural. The phrases " as follows," "as regards," " as appears," " as con- 
cerns," should generally be used as they are here given, unless they occur so 
closely in connection with a plural substantive as to be influenced by it ; as, "The 
exceptions are as follow." — Wilson's Punctuation. Mr. Wilson uses this mode of 
expression frequently, though other writers generally prefer the singular form. 
Mr. Brown's doctrine of Thou, and its "familiar forms" of the verb, is evidently 
erroneous. 

Nominatives involving numbers, or arithmetical nominatives, are not yet well 
settled in regard to their syntactical structure. Most of them may be classed with 
collective nouns. In addition, the verb must of course be plural; in subtraction, 
division, or proportion, it may be singular or plural, according to the view taken : 
in fractions and compound numbers that must be read plurally, the verb should, 1 
think, be generally plural, though the principle that a plural term sometimes de- 
notes a single object, or that two or more singular nominatives connected by and 
denote but one person or thing, sometimes operates in favor of the singular verb. 
As to multiplication, I believe the prevailing custom is this : When the word times 
is used, it controls the form of the verb; when once, twice, or thrice is used, the 
verb should be singular or plural, according as the expression involves the idea of 
time or times. Mr. Brown says, that the multiplicand should be considered the 
nominative ; and that when this is one, naught, or any. other singular, the verb 
should be singular ; and when it rises above one, the verb should be plural. This 
is certainly the most rational view, and can be best sustained by the grammatical 
analysis of the subject, and also by analogy. It accords best with such expressions- 



208 ADVERBS. 

as, M Twice the sum is insufficient to pay my debts ;" " Four times the son's age 
is equal to the father's ;" " Ten times the amount was refused ;" " Five times the 
quantity was sold ;" which are perhaps too well established to be condemned. 
The German language also confirms this latter opinion, except, I believe, that it 
more frequently regards the multiplicand a singular collective noun. 

9. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether the participle or the infinitive 
should be preferred. Sometimes either may be used. The present participle de- 
notes an act or state as accompanying that of the principal verb, while the infinitive 
commonly implies that the acts or states are successive. The infinitive is generally 
better adapted, than the participle, to express the act or state substantively. When 
a substantive participle or infinitive is to be used in connection with the substan- 
tive denoting the object to which the act or state belongs, it is often better to use 
the clause beginning with that. When a verbal appositive relates to an initial it, 
it should rather be the infinitive than the participle ; as, "It is useless trying" 
should be, " It is useless to try." After verbs of trying or intending, the infinitive 
should be used. After the verbs hear, see, and feel, either may be used. After 
verbs of omitting, avoidmy, or preventing, the participle should generally be used. 
After verbs of beginning, continuing, or desisting, the participle may generally be 
used, though the infinitive is sometimes more elegant. Whether a substantive 
associated with a participle should be made possessive, depends on which term 
conveys the more prominent idea. " The fair wind is the cause of the vessel's 
sailing ;" not, " The fair wind is the cause of the vessel sailing." When a parti- 
ciple is limited by such a preceding word as usually requires of after the participle, 
the of may sometimes be omitted before pronouns, when it rather affects the sense 
of the participle than corresponds to the antecedent limiting word. " Your eating 
of it made you sick," is not equivalent to " Your eating it made you sick." " He 
said it in hearing his father," "He said it in the hearing of his father," differ in 
sense : the word hearing, in the former, relates to He • in the latter, to father. " He 
was killed by galloping a horse." * He himself rode the horse. " He was killed by 
the galloping of a horse." Some other person, or else no one, rode the horse. 

9. ADVERBS. 

? 353. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of 
a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. Sometimes an adverb modifies a 
phrase or an entire proposition. 

Ex.— " She is homely, but she sings beautifully." " The lake is very deep." 
" Yonder lies your book." " I will write to-morrow." " He speaks tolerably well." 
" He sailed nearly round the world." Nearly modifies not the preposition round, but 
the adjunct round the world, for an adjunct=an adjective or an adverb. " The book is 
soiled only on the outside." " He was so young, so intelligent, so | every thing that 
we are apt to like in a young man." — Irving. Here the entire part of the sentence 
after the last so, has the sense of an adjective modified by so. " Have you seen 
him ? — No." Here it is simplest to regard No as modifying the question. Words 
from other parts of speech are also occasionally used as adverbs. " Carnation red ; 
marble cold ; somewhat better ; none the worse ; passing strange ; dripping wet ; 
scalding hot." "It fell down." "Above, ar our ^, beneath, within, the lurid fires 
gleamed." "You have paid dear for the wh*-)tle." " Tramp, tramp, across the 
land they speed; splash, splash, across the sea." — Scott. " The stronger the mind, 
the greater its ambition." — Addison. Degree. " His heart went pit-a-pat, but hers 
went pity Zekle." — Lowell. How? 

? 354. Some entire phrases are customarily used as adverbs. 

Such are termed adverbial phrases, and parsed like adverbs. 

Ex. — "In general" '= generally ; " by and hj"=soon, shortly ; "at all"=m any 
degree. " At least ; in short ; on high ; in fine ; at present ; at last ; on the con- 
trary ; out and out ; through and through ; no more ; at most ; for the most part : 
three times ; four times ; man by man==Lat. viritim ; foot by foot ; glass to glass." 
" He said it again and again." " Whose brisk awakening sound he loved the best" 



ADVERBS. 209 

* '.Representation and taxation should go Mnd in handy " The argument was 
carried against him all hollow.' 1 '' — Irving. A phrase should not be parsed as a 
whole, when its words can be parsed separately with as much propriety. 

? 355. An adverb modifies by expressing manner, degree, place, 
time, or some other circumstance. See above. 

'? 356. Sometimes an adverb modifies its word, in relation to a 
substantive in the same clause or proposition. 

Ex. — " Not only he must go, but you too. 11 "And chiefly thou, Spirit, instruct 
me." — Milton. " 'Twas better so to close, than longer wait to part entirely foes." — 
Byron. "John only \ borrowed the horse." No other person assisted. "John | 
only borrowed the horse." He did not buy him. "John borrowed the horse 
only'" "John borrowed j only the horse." 'He borrowed nothing more. " And 
leave the world for me to bustle in." 

? 357. Some adverbs connect two clauses, and modify a word in 
each. Such are called conjunctive adverbs. The clause with the 
adverb has the sense of an adverb, an adjective, or a noun. 

Ex. — " Make hay ivhile the sun shines." When. " He rode the horse before 
he bought him." " You speak of it as you understand it." How ? " Go where 
glory waits thee." Whither? "In the grave where our hero was buried." In 
what grave ? "The reason why it has been negected, is obvious." What reason ? 
" I saw how a pin is made." I saw what? Sometimes the antecedent or correla- 
tive adverb is expressed, and then the latter adverb merely joins o§ and modifies 
its own part. " I was there \ where it happened." Where it happened is explanatory 
of there somewhat like an appositive. 

? 358. Sometimes adverbs so little affect the sentence that it 
would not seem improper to say they are used independently. 

Ex. — Yes, no, ay, amen, accordingly, consequently, &c. "Nay, such was the 
general clamor, that," &c. " Why, you must be crazy." " Well, I hardly know 
what to say." " So, so, and this is the way you have spent your time." " There 
were three in all; namely, John, James, and Joseph." "Secondly, he could go 
there if he would." " There is none righteous, no, not one." "Thus, in France, 
common carriers are not liable for robbery." — Kent. Adverbs thus used partake 
of the nature of conjunctions or interjections. Most of them may be parsed as ad- 
verbs modifying the entire proposition, or the preceding sentence or discourse, 
or else something understood ; and some of them are always best parsed as con- 
junctions. 

? 359. Adverbs, like adjectives, may be divided into classes, and 
they have also comparison. Many adverbs may be compared like 
adjectives; but derivative adverbs ending in /y,.are nearly always 
compared by more and most, or by less and least. See pp. 30-32. 

Ex. — Soon, sooner, soonest; eaijy, earlier, earliest; wisely, more wisely, most 



Frequently, an adverb denotes manner, when it modifies a verb ; and degree, 
when it modifies an adjective or an adverb: as, "He thinks so:" "He writes so 
awkwardly." "How did you do it ?" " I know not how deep it is." 

? 360. Most adverbs are formed by annexing ly to adjectives or 
participles. Sometimes s is annexed. 

Ex. — Eirm, firmly ; noble, nobly ; united, unitedly; sparing, sparingly ; out- 
ward, outwards. Ly (Saxon lie, Germ, lich) is originally the same as like, oi 
Bimply another form of like. Gentleman, gentleman-like, gentlemanly 



210 ADVERBS. 

? 361. Some adverbs are compounded of two or more words; 
and adverbs are often used to form other compound words. 

Ex. — Indeed, forever, hereupon, wherewithal, aboard=on board, ahead=at the 
head, hereafter, fore^ermore, whithersoever, helter-skelter. Well-bred, far-fetched, 
downtrodden ; unpunished, untrue, impure. The common prefix un, and its 
equivalents, are adverbial, signifying not. 

? 362. Adverbs promote brevity. The sense of almost every ad- 
verb can be conveyed by an adjunct or some other expression. A 
conjunctive adverb is nearly always equivalent to two adjuncts; 
and most adverbial phrases and some adverbs are but imperfect 
adjuncts. 

Ex. — Wisely =m. a wise manner, with wisdom ; rapidly=with rapidity ; here= 
at or in this place ; thus=in this manner ; very='m a high degree ; why=for what 
reason ; never==at no time. " Whence [from ivhat place'] is he V " She was buried 
when the sun was setting" =She was buried at the time in which the sun was set- 
ting. The seed grew up where it fell ; i. e., from the place on which it fell. When 
may stand for then when ; where, for there where ; as, for so as. At prese?it=&t the 
present time ; yesterday=on yesterday ; in vain=in a vain manner ; long ago=&t a 
time long-gone by. Sometimes it is better to use the adjunct. " In a silly man- 
ner," is a better expression than sillily ; " in a small way or degree," than smally: 
"in concord," than concorolantly ; " by which," "with which," than wherewith. " 

? 363. Adverbs supply the inadequacy of tenses, and they have 
also some affinity with moods. 

Ex. — " I will study | presently — by and by — to-morrow — henceforth.'''' " He will 
certainly come." Indicative mood strengthened. "Perhaps he will come"=He 
may come. Some adverbs need not the verb, to express commands in the most 
forcible manner. "On, Stanley, on /"== March on, &>c. Up, warder, ho! "Away 
with it." Down with tyranny. Out with him. "Hence, or thou diest." 

? 364. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish adverbs from ad- 
jectives. 

Some words retain the same form in either sense ; but, gen 
erally, the ending ly or s is made the sign of the adverb. 

Ex. — No, well, better, best, much, more, most, very, wide (=ajar), long, first, 
all, even, just, like, right (=very, directly), else, next, pretty (=tolerably), little, 
less, least, still, ill, worse, worst, enough, full (=very), only, hard (laboriously), 
fast, yonder, early, late, likely, daily, weakly, weekly, monthly, yearly, gentle- 
manly, manly, comely, princely, deadly, kingly, nightly; "no man," adj.; "no 
deeper," adv. Brave, bravely ; witty, wittily ; able, ably; upward, upwards. 

? 365. In poetry and in compound words, the adjective form of 
the word, or the adjective mode of comparison, is allowed to a 
greater extent than elsewhere. 

Ex. — " The swallow sings sweet from her nest in the wall." — Dimond. " Drink 
deep, or touch not the Pierian spring." — Pope. " Ten censure wrong for one that 
writes amiss." — Id. "Though thou wert firmlier fastened than a rock." — Milton. 
High-colored, smooth- gliding : yet, even in most such compounds, the reference is 
still to a noun rather than to a verb ; as, sweet-scented=of sweet scent; high-soaring 
=high in soaring ; and we can not say high-polished, but must say highly polished. 

? 366. An adjective may be affected by a verb, and still remain 
an adjective, provided the verb shpws merely how the quality is 
acquired or made known. The quality may often be conceived as 



ADVERBS. EXERCISES. 211 

belonging to the person or thing, regardless of the act; or else as 

belonging to the former in the way shown by the verb. 

Ex. — " Who paints the lily vjhite, the violet bluer' 1 "The clay burns white. 1 '' 
" The waves dashed high." " The fields look pleasant." " I feel cold ;" i. e., I am 
cold. State or quality. " She looks coldly on him." Manner. "The rose smells 
sweet." " Mary appears neat" She is always so, or in regard to every thing : 
neatness is a trait in her character. " Mary dresses neatly" She is neat, so far as 
dressing is concerned. " The apple tastes sour." Here we could not say, u in a 
sour manner." "The trees stand thick ;" i. e., they are thick, dense, or numerous, 
"lie stood firm." "We arrived safe." " lie made merry over his loss:" i. e., 
was merry, or made himself merry, etc. "Soft blows the breeze." ("Soft is the 
breeze that blows o'er Ceylon's isle.") " Velvet feels smooth." " His hammock 
swung loose at the sport of the wind." "The wind blew the colder, the longer it 
blew." So, when the word expresses state or condition in relation to the subject, 
rather than manner, place, or time in relation to the verb ; as, athirst, and com- 
monly asleep, alone, alike, ablaze, afoot, afloat, adrift, 

? 367. Generally speaking, the adverb approaches the adjective 
as the verb approaches a neuter signification, or that of the verb be. 
Ex. — " He spoke better ;" adv. " He seemed better ;" "He felt better ;" adj. 

? 368. Uver= at any time, at all times. It is often a very expressive 
word, and is much used in composition ; as, evergreen, everlasting. Now — 
now = sometimes — sometimes. Then sometimes implies rather condition 
than time. There does not always denote place, but sometimes elegantly 
introduces the sentence, or makes a convenient handle to it. Thus and so 
may each sometimes represent a preceding or a following word, phrase, or 
sentence. So occasionally represents a noun, though not always elegantly. 
Yes and no are each equivalent to a sentence. 

Ex. — " Did you ever see the like ?" "Now loud, now low, nov) swift, now slow, 
o'er hill and vale they winding go." Suppose yourjparents should die ; how would 
you make a living then ?"=in that condition. " There came to the beach a poor 
exile of Erin." " There was nothing there that I wanted." " Ttius has it ever 
been." " He is a great scholar. — So I was told." " The lord treasurer was often 
a bishop. The lord chancellor was almost always so." — Macaulay. "You saw 
him ?— IV =1 saw him. 

? 369. Adverbs are sometimes used as nouns. 

Ex. — "For once." " By far the best." "And closed for aye the sparkling 
glance." " We have caught enough" "We have played enough;" adv. Such, 
words as much, more, enough, little, are nouns when used after transitive verbs. 

? 370. Adverbs are said to belong to whatever they modify. 
See p. 47. 

EXERCISES. 

Examples to be Analyzed and Parsed. 

, Parse the adverbs and adjectives. 

The clouds move slowly. Now came still evening on. She gazed long 
upon the clouds in the west, while they were slowly passing away. As 
the year blooms and fades, so does human life. So great a man could not 
be always kept in obscurity. Having duly arranged his affairs, he de- 
parted immediately. You are yet young enough to learn the French lan- 
guage very easily. The most worthless things are sometimes most 
esteemed. Where was there ever an army that had served their country 
more faithfully ? 



212 ADVERBS. EXERCISES. 



Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day stands tiptoe on the 
misty mountain's top. In vain we seek for perfect happiness. We lived 
there long ago. The more I study grammar, the better I like it. Man by 
man, and foot by foot, did the soldiers proceed over the Alps. It was 
not at all strange, that he should at last defend himself. Only the young 
men were sent to war. The field had only been ploughed. The wretched 
fugitives were pursued even to the churches. Briefly, we rely on you 
alone. Finally, the war is already begun, and we must either 15 conquer 
or perish. Shall this colossal Union be broken asunder? No; never, 
never I They are most firmly good that best know why. 

3. 

Friends, but 13 few on earth, and therefore 13 dear ; 
Sought oft, and sought almost as 13 oft in vain. — PoUoh. 
Now they wax, and now they dwindle, 

Whirling with the whirling spindle ; 
Twist ye, twine ye ! even so 

Mingle human bliss and woe. — W. Scott. 
The piper loud and louder blew> 
The dancers quick and quicker flew. — Bums. 

Examples to be Corrected. 

All the liabilities to error in regard to adverbs, may be reduced to the fol- 
lowing heads : — 

1. Choice. 2. Form. S. Position. 

1. Choice. 

The most appropriate adverb should be selected to express the mean- 
ing intended. 

A wicked man is not happy, be he never so hardened in conscience. We 
do not want the sound of these charmers [organ-grinders], charm they never so 
sweetly. — Harper's Magazine. Snow seldom or ever falls in the southern part 
of Texas. Whether you are willing or no, you will have to pay the debt. The 
road is so muddy that we can proceed no further. Nothing farther was said 
about the matter. It rains most every day. This wheat stands most too 
thick. He is a mighty insignificant fellow. Where shall I flee? Who 
brought me here, will also take me from hence. We remained a week at Gal- 
veston, and proceeded from thence to Indianola. Such cloaks were in fashion 
about five years since. — ago. About two weeks since, two grocery-keepers 
at Doniphan had a fight. Related not only by blood, but likewise by marriage. 
■—but also — James is studious, but Thomas is studious also. — too. I am 
some better than I was. — somewhat — He felt something encouraged on 
receiving the news. No other tree, in its old age, is as beautiful as the elm. 
Have you done like he directed you ? — as — Directly he comes, we shall 
go. (Say, "As soon as," for directly is not a conjunctive adverb.) Immediately 
when they arrive, we shall go. I never before saw such large trees. — trees 
that were so large. She is such a good woman. — so good a woman. 



j ADVERBS. EXERCISES. 213 

2. Form. 
Adverbs should be expressed in their true or most appropriate form. 

Speak slow and distinct. Tou have behaved very bad. This pen does 
not write good. He behaved manlily. She behaved very sillily. At this 
place, the mountains are extraordinary high and steep. — History of Virginia. 
He lived an extreme hard life. She is a remarkable pretty girl. An abomina- 
ble ugly little woman officiated at the table. I am only tolerable well, sir. 
It is wonderful to see how preposterous the affairs of this world are sometimes 
managed. The fox is an exceeding artful animal. He is doing fine. She 

was dressed as fi as silk could make her. People say he is independent 

rich. He struggled manful, and became independent. You have been wrong 
informed on the subject. Sure he is as fine a gentleman as can be found any- 
where. She dresses suitable to her station and means. We went direct to 
the cave. 

I shall first notice why we should worship God ; and, second, how we should 
worship him. Fifth and last, I would remark that he never succeeded at any 
thiDg. Agreeable to the present arrangement, I shall have to recite my Greek 
during the first hour. Previous to our arrival, the captain was taken ill. The 
insolent proud soon acquire enemies. We have near finished our work. You 
did the work as good as I could expect. The Irishman was so bruised that he 
said he scarce knew himself again. As like as not you love her yourself. Push 
the wagon backward. — backwards. Come hitherward. I received the gift 
with pleasure, but I shall now gladlier resign it. — more gladly — These are 
the things highliest important. I can easier raise a crop of hemp than a crop 
of tobacco. Abstract principles are easiest learned when clearest illustrated. 

3. Position. 

Adverbs should be so placed in the sentence as to make it correct, clear, 
and elegant. 

This precept is also applicable to adjuncts and to some conjunctions. 

Every man can not afford to keep a coach. Not every man, &c. All their 
neighbors were not invited. All that we hear, we should not believe. There 
could not be found one man that was willing to enlist. They became even 
grinders of knives and razors. The two young ladies came to the party, nearly 
dressed alike. I only recited one lesson during the whole day. In promoting 
the public good, we only discharge our duty. Theism can only be opposed to 
polytheism. He is only so when he is drunk. I only bought the horse, and 
not the buggy. I have borrowed this horse only, yet I intend to buy him. 
Such prices are only paid in times of great scarcity. These words were not 
only uttered by a mortal man, but by one who was constantly exposed to death, 
and expecting it. The word couple can only be properly applied to objects in 
connection. The interest not only had been paid, but the greater part of the 
principal also. Bibulus could only escape outrage, by not only avoiding all 
assemblies of the people, but every solemn and important meeting of the senate. 
If you have only learned to spend money extravagantly at college, you may stay 
at home. If you have learned, at college, only to spend money extravagantly, &c 
The future tense simply expresses future time. Corn should be generally 
planted in April. He is thought to be generally honest. For beginners and 
generally young men. The farmers sell their produce generally to the mer- 
chants. 

In other countries, where the fate of the poor is wretched indeed, of- 
fices are merely created for the emolument of certain classes. How much 



214 ADVERBS. EXEKCISES. 

would the difficulty be increased, were w^ solely to depend upon their gen- 
erosity ! I am not as attentive to the studies I even like, as I should be. Most 
nations, not even excepting the Jews, were prone to idolatry. He can not 
show me where ever I voted different. No man has ever so much that he does 
not wish to accumulate more. We do those things frequently which we re- 
pent of afterwards. There was another man still, who had lost his horse also. 
— was still another man — There is still a shorter method. — a still shorter — 
My opinion was given after rather a cursory perusal of the book. Such con- 
duct rather will make him sulky and stupid than amiable and sprightly. I my- 
self was a little inclined to visit her once. Having lost once a thousand dollars 
by speculation, he would never venture again. Having almost lost a thousand 
dollars by the speculation, he was able only to pay a part of the debt. Sextus 
the Fourth, if I mistake not, was a great collector of books, at least. By hasty 
composition, we shall acquire certainly a very bad style. The argument is 
very plausible, certainly, if not conclusive. Having not known, or having not 
considered the measures proposed, he failed of success. Our boat had fortun- 
ately left the ship, previous to the explosion. . He promised to send to me as 
much again as he had borrowed, the next day. They were almost cut off to a 
man. There is nothing more pleases him than to praise his performances. 
TJiere is nothing that pleases him more, than for others to praise, &c. We may 
happily live, though our possessions are small. Not only he found her em- 
ployed, but pleased and tranquil also. She will be always discontented. The 
following bet is said actually to have been made between an Adams man and a 
Jackson man. — is said to have actually been made — 

I occupy the same political position nearly, that I occupied five years ago. The 
words should be arranged so that harmony may be promoted. — so arranged — 
The law does not undertake to compel him so to do, or punish him for not so 
doing. — Kent. The front part of the house was very differently built from the 
back part. The goods could not be possibly shipped any sooner. He seems 
clearly to have understood this part of the Constitution. — seems to have clearly — 
He seems early to have applied himself to the study of law. We should 
not be overcome totally by present events. It can not be impertinent or ridi- 
culous therefore to remonstrate. It is impossible continually to be at work. 
We have often opportunities to do good. It seems but three miles distant, and 
yet it perhaps is twenty. He determined to invite back the king, and to call 
together his friends. Nature mixes the elements variously and curiously some- 
times, it is true. The Secretary was soon expected to resign — was expected 
daily to resign, A school must carefully be conducted to please such patrons. 
They managed so as completely to elude their pursuers. We are not inclined 
to unnecessarily place ourselves in so perilous a situation. You are to slowly 
raise the trap, while I hold the sack. The sealing of the documents up, aiso 
delayed me. The sealing- up of] &c. Spelling is the putting of letters together, 
so as to make words. 

Negatives. 

When two negatives contradict each other, they can not express a 
negation. 

It is hardly proper, though accprding to custom, to place this class of errors under Ad- 
verbs ; for sometimes neither one of the negatives is an adverb. 

I will never do so no more. We didn't find nobody at home. I don't 
know nothing about your affairs. There can not be nothing more contemptible 
than hypocrisy. The scene was truly terrific ; nothing never affected me so 
much. But, 0! the greedy thirst of royal crown, that knows no kindred, nor 
regards no right. — Spenser. Congress has not, nor never had, the Constitu- 
tional power to intermeddle thus. He wondered that none of the members had 



ADVERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 215 

Mever thought of it. Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. 
Do not let no one disturb me. Never was a fleet more completely equipped, 
nor never had a nation more sanguine hopes of success. Neither that nor no 
such thing was said in my hearing. There was no bench, nor no seat of any 
kind, that was not crowded with people. Neither he, nor nobody else, ever 
raised, in one year, so many bushels of potatoes on one acre. She will never 
grow no taller. For hence I will not, can not, no, nor must not. Death 
never spared no one. "And yet say nothing neither;" "And yet say nothing 
either." (Usage is unsettled as to this phraseology.) 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1, No, in such expressions as "whether or no," should be not. Everso prop- 
erly expresses indefinite or unlimited degree ; its place, therefore, should not De 
usurped by never so. Most means in the highest degree, and it is often improperly 
used for almost or rather, or as a contraction of the former. Nearly should rather 
be applied to quantity, time, or space ; and almost, to degree. So, entirely and 
scarcely rather imply quantity; completely and hardly, degree. Hither, thither, 
and whither, are now preferred, only in the grave style, to here, there, and 
where, when the principal idea is motion to or from a place. Hence, thence, and 
whence, imply the idea of from something ; hence, to place from before them, 
makes the expressions tautological and generally inelegant. Likewise strictly im- 
plies something more in like manner ; also, something more ; and too, something more 
of the same act, state, or kind of things. But these distinctions are not always ob- 
served. " I have done like he directed," should be, " I have done a* he directed." 
Like suggests a similarity of manner in the two actions ; but as properly expresses 
their connection and correspondence. So, with a modifying word, expresses de- 
gree; and, in this sense, such or as is sometimes incorrectly or inelegantly used in 
the place of it. "She is not such an amiable woman as her sister;" i. e., not an 
amiable woman of the same kind as her sister. " She is not so amiable a woman 
as her sister ;" i. e., not amiable in the same degree. But, since different grades 
are often the same as different kinds, the two modes of expression are often equi- 
valent, and are so used by many good writers. The same remark applies to sen- 
tences of this kind : " She is not as amiable as her sister." Better : " She is not so 
amiable as her sister." But, without the preceding negative, we might properly 
say, "She is as amiable as her sister ;" "It is as good as the other." Farther^ 
beyond this place ; further=in addition, and is not usually applied to place. 

2. Adjectives and adverbs are often confounded, because they resemble in sig- 
nification ; because some words are used in either capacity, while others are not ; 
because most adverbs are derived from adjectives, and because they are sometimes 
really interchangeable without injuring the sense, for the nature of every act is 
intimately connected with the objects on which it depends. Grammarians have 
tried to guard pupils against errors, by the precept, u Adjectives should be used to 
qualify noun*, or prono-uns ; out adverbs, to qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. 

Different Forms : Well, for instance, is the adverb corresponding to the adjec- 
tive good. Same Forms : Better, best, worse, worst, &c., are used either as adverbs 
or as adjectives. Derived Forms: Previous, previously; easier, more easily; &c. 
The ending ly or s should be preferred, when it will distinguish the adverb from 
the corresponding adjective; as, scarcely, upwards, downwards. Licensed Forms : 
The adjective may sometimes be used in stead of the adverb ; or rather, the form 
of the adjective, especially the comparative or the superlative preceded by an ar- 
ticle, may be used as an adverb. " He lives best who acts the noblest." "Swift to 
the breach his comrades fly"=They are swift in flying to the breach. u Swiftly to 
the breach his comrades fly"=They^y swiftly to the' breach. Perhaps the adjec- 
tive in most such expressions implies a fixed and permanent quality or attribute, 
and the adverb only a temporary state. " Soft sighed the flute ;" i. e., with that 
sweetness and softness which are peculiar to it, — which it alwavs has. "Softly 
sighed the flute" [in that particular instance]. When the adverbial ending would 
change the meaning, the adjective form must "hfe used. " To stop short," differs 
from " To stop shortly." "He came contrary to my expectations ;" not, contrarily. 



216 ADVERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 

" For gentlemen who speak me fair.' 1 '' Sometimes the adjective form is proper, 
because the expression is, in thought at least, elliptical, or is but the adjective rem- 
nant of an adjunct or other phrase that performed the office of an adverb. 
" Though she paint an inch thick;" i. e., paint her face with rouge an inch thick. 
" You have paid dear for the whistle ;" %, e,, a dear price for the whistle. " You 
work late ;" i. e., till a late hour. " It happened, contrary to my expectations" =It 
happened; which thing was contrary to my expectations. "He hit the tree wide 
from the mark ;" i. e., a wide distance. " Speak true ;" i. e., what is true. If I say, 
" The machinery works smoothly," I refer simply to its operation ; but if I say, " It 
works smooth, I refer to its parts as affected by its operation. So, " The mahogany 
polishes finely" expresses the sense better than " The mahogany polishes fine ;" 
for the meaning is, that it not only becomes fine, but admits polish better than 
most other things. Should we say, " I feel had, or badly f" Butler and Clark 
have decided in favor of bad. Our best writers seem to have avoided the expres- 
sion altogether. We say, "I feel cold," "I felt mean;" but the best popular 
usage seems to be in favor of saying, "I feel badly," which, moreover, is not 
equivalent to " I am bad." 

When the meaning is a mongrel of adjective and adverb, I believe general usage, 
in most instances, prefers the adjective form. 

To avoid the disagreeable termination lily, we sometimes use a synonymous 
word ; as, piously for holily : sometimes we use the corresponding adjunct ; as, 
"In envily manner," for wilily : and there is some tendency to use the adjective 
form for both the adjective and the adverb ; as, " A manly act it was ;" " He 
acted manly" ^ 

To poets is allowed great liberty in the use of adverbs ; especially in the form. 
But neither poets nor any other persons are allowed to use them so as to pervert 
their meaning. A poet may say, " The swallow sings sweet from her nest in the 
wall ;" or, " To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes ;" or, "From thence to other 
scenes he passed ;" for we understand him. But, " His visage to the view was 
only bare," does not convey the meaning intended; and should be, "His visage 
only to the view was bare." 

3. The position of adverbs is regulated, in the first place, by the sense ; and 
next, by emphasis and melody. 

Adverbs are generally placed after the verb, or after the first auxiliary, before or 
after participles, and before adjectives or adverbs. 

Enough follows its adjective or adverb ; as, "A place good enough." Ever, 
never, sometimes, often, always, most frequently precede the verb. Such adverbs as 
only, merely, solely, chiefly, at least, &c, maybe used to limit almost any part of the 
sentence, and should therefore be placed near to the parts which they are intended 
to modify. Some of the most common adverbs are very diffusive in their shades 
of meaning, and their capability of modifying. " He is generally at home" — time. 
" Crops are generally good" — time or place. " The sermon was generally interest- 
ing." Were most of its parts good ? or did it please most of the people ? or did the 
person often preach good sermons ? The effect of inserting such adverbs can not 
be too carefully scrutinized. The is sometimes elegantly required before a com- 
parative or a superlative adverb, to express emphasis ; as, " Whose sweet en- 
trancing tones he loved the best." — Collins. 

Emphatic Position : " Then never saw I charity before." " In their prosperity, 
my friends shall never hear of me ; in their adversity, always." 

Metrical Position : " Peeping from forth their alleys green ;" " To swiftly glide 
o'er hill and dale." 

4. Two negatives make an affirmation, as in the following sentence : " I never 
said nothing to him about it"=I said something to him about it. The sentence 
should have been, " I never said any thing to him about it ;" or, " I said nothing 
to him about it." Not, followed by only, or by some equivalent word, modifies this, 
and does not affect the negative coming after it ; so that a sentence with two nega- 
tives thus situated, is still negative; as, "I not only never said so, but never 
thought so." Two negatives independent of each other, a negative repeated, or a 
negative strengthened by its correlative, do not destroy the negation ; as, "No, 
never." " I will never, never give my consent." " There was no peace, no happi- 
ness, in the family." "I have seen Christians that had neither love nor charity." 



PREPOSITIONS. 217 

" It may not be popular neither to take away any of the privileges of Parlia- 
ment." — Mansfield. "I do not understand this business. — Nor I neither.'''' — 
Garrick. Here either, I think, would be incorrect ; for neither is the proper cor- 
relative of nor. 

Two negatives are sometimes preferred to express a modest, an elegant, or a 
forcible affirmaton ; as, " He is not w^schooled in the ways of the world;" i. e., 
he is shrewd enough. " I mean the riding-habit, which some have not ^judiciously 
styled the hermaphroditical, by reason of its masculine and feminine composition. n 
— Gay. " There is no climate that is not a witness of their toils." — Burke. 
"Nor did they not perceive the evil plight 
In which they were, or the fierce pain not feel." — Milton. 

10. PREPOSITIONS. 

? 371. A preposition is a word used to show the relation 

between different things. 

Ex.— a A rabbit in a hollow tree." What in what ? " How sweetly bloom the 
violets on yonder bank !" u The wind glides in waves over the bristling barley. * 

? Two prepositions are sometimes combined and used as one, and 

some phrases are customarily used as prepositions. 

Ex. — Upon, according to, as to, as for. " The river flowed from under the pal- 
aces." "Over against the church stood the hospital." " The lady sits genteelly, 
the more because of company." 

? 372. Prepositions subjoin the place, time, doer, possessor, cause, 
source, purpose, means, manner, condition, or some other circum- 
stance. They show where, whither, whence, when, hoio long, by 
what means, to what extent, in what way, of what hind, &c. 

Ex. — " The fox was caught under a bluff, "before sunrise, by the dogs of our 
neighbor." " To be punished for mischief." " The light of the sun." " To 
work for pay." " To chop with an ax." " To write with elegance." " To be in 
poverty." " Done against law." 

? 373. An adjunct is a preposition with its object, or with 

the words required after it to complete the sense. 

Ex. — " This large melon grew on a slender vine." " He was shot in his cabin, \ 
on Wednesday, \ with an arrow, \ by an Indian \ of the Comanche tribe." "The 
6ame man that I came with;" i. e., with whom. "The ship was about to be 
wrecked." " Anxious for him to be caught." " The labor of cleai'ing land depends 
on how much timber there is growing on it." " Eeason and justice have been jury- 
men since before Noah was a sailor" — Shakespeare. 

? 374. Some adjuncts may be inverted or parted, especially in 

poetry. 

Ex. — " Whom was it given to f" better, " To ichom was it given ?" " From crag 
to crag, the rattling peaks among ;" i. e., among the rattling peaks. " Come, walk 
with me the jungle through" — Jaeber. 

? 375. Two or more prepositions may govern the same sub- 
stantive ; two or more substantives may be governed by the same 
preposition ; and two or more adjuncts are often combined into one. 

Ex. — " He walked up and down the hall." " He approved of and voted for, 
the measure;" better, "He approved of the measure, and voted for it." "A 
battle between the Sioux and the Comanches." " He bequeathed his estate to his 
wife, children, and friends." " The gold | in a piece of quartz from the mines of 
California:' 1 

10 



218 PREPOSITIONS. 

? 376. An adjunct may relate to an object, an act or state, or a 
quality ; that is, it may modify a substantive, an adjective, a verb, 
or an adverb. 

Ex. — " Caves in the mountains." "The river rises in the mountains." <{ The 
river is clear in the mountains. 

The modified term, which commonly precedes, is called the antecedent term ; 
and the governed substantive, the subsequent term, which may sometimes be even 
a participle, an infinitive, a phrase, or a clause. See adjuncts, above. 

? 377. Adjuncts extend over nearly all the ground occupied by 
adjectives, adverbs, and the possessive case, and even beyond, sup- 
plying their deficiencies. 

Ex. — "A man of wisdom and virtue" = A wise and virtuous man. "A ship with- 
out motion," -= A motionless ship." M To stand here"=To stand in this place. "Ab- 
salom's beau ty"=The beauty of Absalom. "A land of liberty" No adjective. "To 
stand on the shores of New England." No adverb. 

? 478. When a preposition has no word to govern, it becomes an 

adverb. 

Ex. — " The eagle flew up, then around^tihen down again." " It fell from above ;" 
"It came from within— from without." Here above, within, and without, are per- 
haps best parsed as nouns. 

? 379. Sometimes the object is merely omitted ; and sometimes 

the antecedent term is omitted, or there is none. 

Ex. — " The man you spoke of;" i.e., of whom you spoke. "Vengeance on 
whoever has killed him ;" i. e., on him who.' " Industrious all, from the youngest 
to the oldest;" *. 0., reckoning from the youngest. u As for riches, they are not 
worth so much care and anxiety." " Sold at the rate of from fifty cents to a dol- 
lar;" i. e., of prices varying from fifty cents to a dollar : or, when but one indef- 
inite thing is meant, the first preposition may be parsed as governing all the rest 
of the phrase, and the second as having no antecedent term. 

? 380. The preposition itself is sometimes omitted ; especially for, to, 
or unto. These prepositions are usually omitted after like, unlike, near, 
nigh, opposite, or such verbs as may be followed in the active voice by two 
objects ; the one governed by the verb, and the other denoting the person 
to whom the act refers, — sometimes called, for distinction, the direct object, 
and the indirect. 

Ex. — " The house was near [to] the river — nearer [to] the river — next to ours." 
"The son is like [to or unto] his father." " Opposite- [to] the market." " Lend 
him your knife" = Lend your knife to him* 

? 381. Prepositions, as modifying or qualifying words, make in 

part hundreds of our most expressive compound words. 

Ex. — Overshoot, overspread, overthrow; undermine, underbrush, under str sapper ; 
uphold, upheave ; J^-stander; afterthought', implant (in-). 



Some prepositions show where : In, on, under, over, above, before, behind, 
below, around, between, among, by, beyond, at. Some show whither: To, 
toward, into, up, down, for. Some show whence: Out of; from, of. Some 
show when : At, in, on, after, before. Some show how long: During, for, till. 
Some imply contact or union : On, upon, with. Some refer to inner parts : 
In, into, within, among, amid, through. Some, to outer parts: On, around, 
about, over, to. Some have opposites : To — from ; over, on — under ; above — 
below, beneath ; with — without ; up — down ; for — against ; along — across ; 



PREPOSITIONS. 219 

through — around ; before — behind ; on — off ; before — after, since {time) ; till— « 
after ; within — without. Some are allied in meaning : Over, above ; on, upon ; 
under, below, beneath; from, ofj out of; behind, after; across, athwart; about, 
around ; in, within ; at, by ( place) ; by, with (means) ; to, for. 



The prepositions have been too superficially treated by most of our gram- 
marians. There is no object, act, quality, or condition, not exclusively described 
by other words, that may not be described by adjuncts in any conceivable way; 
and hence the correctness, clearness, and vigor of discourse, depend not a little 
upom them. There are a few grand ideas, namely, those of space, time, cause, 
means, purpose, manner. &c, which control and limit the mind in its acquisi- 
tions, encompass and pervade all its other knowledge, and tincture speech uni- 
versally, but especially prepositions. Hence, nearly all the prepositions may 
express relations of place; a smaller number may be applied to time; and a 
still smaller number to cause, purpose, means, manner, &c. Some relations are of 
the external world, but many others rather lie in the judgments or views taken 
by the mind. Prepositions are often extended from the most obvious relations 
of place, to the most abstruse and delicate maneuvres of the mind itself; but, as 
they are generally extended figuratively (see pp. 262-71) from relations of place 
to relations of time, cause, means, manner, &c, any meaning apparently different 
from the primitive, generally resembles it, is readily suggested by it, or can be 
traced to it. The following exposition of prepositions will be valuable to the 
studious learner. 

Most of the examples are taken from Lord Macaulay. 

A, said to be from at, on, or in, is now rarely used as a separate word, except 
sometimes before a participial noun ; as, " Towards evening we went a fishing." 

Aboard. u To go or be aboard a ship." 

About is less precise than around or at. It is applicable to place, time, quan- 
tity, number, acts, and states. "A girdle about the waist;" "To be about the 
house;" "To go about the country, making speeches;" "About noon-" "Costs 
afoz^somuch;" "About a dozen;" "Engaged about one's business;" "Angry 
about something;" " About to be hanged" — nearness to an act not yet done. 

Above. "The room — the stars above us;" "A tree rising above the house ;" 
"A city above another on the same river ;" "To be above in rank — above suspi- 
cion ;" " To feel oneself above others — above labor;" "To be above reach — above 
comprehension." 

According to, taken from music, means harmonizing with. "According to 
reason — law — rules;" "A ccording to the dictates of conscience ;" "According to 
weight — value." 

Across= at cross, in a cross. u Across the road — river;" "Arms across 
each other." 

After. " To come after another;" "A day after the time;" "After the de- 
bate;" "Bogs after a fox;" "A hankering after pleasure;" "To inquire after 
some one ;" " To write after a copy." 

Against. " To sit over against another ;" "A ladder against a wall ;" "Be 
ready against to-morrow morning;" "Ants provide against winter;" "To set one 
account against another ;" '' To tug against the stream ;" " To be against nature ;" 
"Against one's feelings;" "Against law." 

Along, following the length of. " Trees along the river;" "Fringed along 
the edges ;" "To drive cattle along the road." "Along with"=in company with. 

Amid, amidst, akin to middle. "A lark reared her brood amid the corn;" 
k Oranges gleaming amidst leaves and blossoms," or among; "Firm amidst tha 



220 PREPOSITIONS. 

storm," not among ; " Undaunted amidst insults and mockeries." Amid usually 
implies quantity, and something more overwhelming than in ; among, number. 
"In the flames ; "Amid the flames." 

Among, amongst, akin to mingle and many. " Flowers among weeds ;" 
" The fools among men ;" "A tradition among the Indians." See Between. 

Around, round=encompassing like a ring or like a globe. It is local, and 
more precise than about. "Around the neck ;" "Around the fire ;" "Around the 
kernel;" " He went round the country, making speeches;" "He sailed round 
the world." 

As to=respecting, concerning, in reference to. "As to the law itself, I have 
nothing to say." 

At. "At the door" — nearness in place; "At church;" "At nine o'clock" — 
nearness in time ; "At the election" — nearness in both or either ; "At work" — 
act; "At war," "At best," — state; " To be at the expense" — nearness and bur- 
den ; " To be at one's service" — nearness and control; "Attorney at law ;" " To 
estimate at a certain price" — nearness in thought, for judging ; ' ' Sold at a dollar 
per bushel" — nearness and exchange; "To take offense at what is said" — near- 
ness, in time, of the saying and the offense, — thence, cause ; " To come at a 
wink ;" " To laugh at some one ;" " To aim at a mark." See In. 

Athwart=across -f* opposition. " Thou that dar'st advance thy miscreated 
front athwart my way." — Milton. 

~Before=by and fore. "Before the house"— place ; "Before night" — time 
"Before the war" — action; " To be before another in rank ;" " To appear before 
court" — place, and something more. 

Behind, "Behind the house" — place; "To be behind the curtains" — 
place + ; " He died, and left no property behind him" — place and time; "Behind 
in excellence;" "The ministry behind the throne" — place and inferiority or 
influence. 

Below implies under, in place, rank, or quantity. "Below the eaves,'* 
"Below another ;" "Below fifty." We can say, "A city below another on the same 
river," but not beneath, — "Below fifty," not beneath. " To be below considera- 
tion," is very different from " To be under consideration." 

Beneath often implies greater distance, and less possibility of approach, than 
below. "A. horrid chasm beneath us ;" "He is beneath notice." 

Beside, besides. "A tree beside the river;" "Something besides accom- 
plishments;" "It is beside my purpose;" "He is beside himself "=out of his wits. 

Between, from by and twain, has a twofold reference ; among, a manifold. 
"Between the house and the river;" "Betiveen one and the rest;" "Between dawn 
and sunrise;" "Between hope and fear;" "Two travelers, with but one dollar 
between them;" "To distinguish between good and bad." "To divide between one 
and another, 11 is correct: " To divide among one another" =one among another; 
therefore say, "among themselves:" "To divide between themselves," not each 
other. " A combat between twenty English against forty French ;" say, " be- 
tween and, or, of. . . .against" "Between the intellectual and moral worlds" 

— Professors Fowler &, Gibbs ; better, "Between the intellectual and the moral 
world," or, "the intellectual world and the moral." 

Betwixt is rather local ; and it is not so widely extended in significations 
as between. This word shows remarkably how variable English orthography has 
been. Its genealogy runs thus : Betwuh, betuh, betwy, betwih, betwyh, betweoh, 
betweohs, betux, betvieox, betwuxt, betwixt. 

Beyond. "The hills beyond the river;" " To look beyond the present;" 
"Beyond a hundred;" "Beyond the evidence;" "Beyond temptation;" "Beyond 
reach ;" "Beyond comprehension." 



PREPOSITIONS. 221 

But is a preposition when equivalent to except, and construed with the ob- 
jective case; as, "The boy stood on the burning deck whence all but him had 
fled." — Remans. It is sometimes, however, construed with the nominative case, 
and is then a conjunction. " Should all the race of mortals die, and none be left 
but he and I."— Scott. 

By. "A flower by a rivulet" — nearness in place; "To come by sea" — place 
and means; ''.Related by marriage," "Achieved by valor," — means: "To work 
by day," " To be ready by morning," — time. " To take by the hand" — place and 
manner; hence, "To demolish by cities." "One by one," "By pairs," "By 
degrees, " By little and little," — manner. "By oneself "=alone ; "It makes 
sense by itself — of itself- — is complete in itself. " " To hew a log by a line," "To 
travel by moonlight," " To prove by the Scriptures," — nearness to something for 
judging or sanction; thence, "To try by law," " To swear by the gods," "Too 
heavy by six pounds." An act received is naturally ascribed to something near, 
and hence by is used in reference to the agent ; as, " He was kicked by a horse." 
By and with are often confounded. By rather directs the mind to the cause or 
the indirect means; with frequently implies accompaniment: by annexes the 
agent or the remoter means; with, the immediate means or the manner. "I 
was favorably impressed by his remarks;" "I was impressed with great esteem 
for him ;" " It was with great difficulty that we succeeded;" "He walks with a 
staff by moonlight;" "Punished with death" — Macaulay ; u The vermin which he 
could not kill with his sword, he killed by poison" — Johnson. " Killed with a 
limb," implies an agent not mentioned ; "Killed by a limb," implies no other 
agent, unless it denotes place merely; " Struck with a palsy," implies that the 
disease has become a part of the person. When with would not express the 
means, by must be used: "To burst with violence" — manner; "To burst by 
violence" — means. "By the stream,' 1 ' 1 does not denote so close a union as " With 
the stream;" by also implies authority, as, "Condemned by the law:" hence, 
"By these [swords] we gained our liberties, and with these we will defend them." 
With here refers to the immediate and instrumental use. Our school geog- 
raphies have " distinguished for ;" i. e., the distinction is caused by the following 
things : but Macaulay writes, " distinguished by ;" i. e., the distinction lies in the 
following particulars. 

Concerning. "A law concerning religion;" "He spoke concerning virtue." 
According, bating, excepting, respecting, regarding, pending, touching, etc., gen- 
erally show their participial tinge, and may sometimes be parsed as participles. 

Down. " To come down the tree — the river;" " To live down town," hardly 
elegant. 

During. "During the summer;" said to be an inverted mode of expression 
for "The summer 2 during," i. e., while the summer lasts. 

Except and save are primarily imperative verbs. Save belongs rather to 
poetry ; and except seems to be stronger and more definite than but. 

For. "Muddy for several miles" — place; "In jail for life" — time; "To 
give money for provisions" — exchange; "Sold for sound;" "To inquire for in- 
formation" — something in view; "Done for him;" "To send for a doctor;" 
" Sent for a guide," better as ; " "Wise for his age ;" " Fit for service ;" " Some 
were for the law" — in favor of; " Honored for his services" — cause, past time ; 
: ' Equipped for battle" — purpose, future time ; "A man's a man for all that"= 
notwithstanding ; "As for me," &c. ; "For me to go," &c. 

From. "A part from the whole ;" "A wind from the mountains ;" "From 
morning till night;" " To judge from the description;" " Secure from winds 
and waves" — out of their reach ; u Secure against winds and waves" — able to 
withstand tliem ; " Disabled from voting," prospective; " Disheartened from 
seeing the obstacles"=on account of, retrospective. 



222 PREPOSITIONS. 

In. "In a meadow" — circular surrounding; "In the dumpling" — globular 
surrounding; "In a chair — corner" — angular surrounding; "In the morning;" 
"In debt ;" "In haste ;" "In pairs;" " One in a dozen ;" "In reach ;" "Pleasure 
in studying;" "In aU probability;" "Warms mthe sun, refreshes in the breeze" 
—by means of, a Grecism. In and at are often usad in speaking of places or 
residences. In is more generally applied to countries and large cities ; and at to 
single houses, small places, or foreign cities. In implies enclosure, or something 
surrounding ; at rather implies nearness to a point or border. " To touch, arrive, 
or land at Boston ;" " To live in St. Louis — in New York — at Saratoga — at or on 
the next farm ;" "To stay at the tavern ;" "To stop at or in the next town ;" 
" To have a store on Broadway, at No. 40." " This produced a great sensation, 
not only in England, but also at Paris, at Vienna, and at the Hague."— Macaulay. 
The choice often depends on the distance : remote places dwindle, in the mental 
vision, to a mere point; so that at becomes sufficiently definite. In is more de- 
finite than at : it vouches for an exact knowledge of the relation. When I say, 
" He is in the tavern — in Constantinople," I assume to know that he is within 
these places, and not outside of them ; but when I say, " He is at the tavern — 
at Constantinople," I suggest simply that he is somewhere about these places — 
occasionally within them. 

Into is an inverted expression for to-in. The natural order is to, into, in ; to 
approaches a boundary, into passes a boundary, and in does not pass out of a 
boundary. "To step into a carriage, and then ride in it;" "To flow into the 
sea;" "Made into cloth;" " Driven into opposition ;" " Adopted in my school," 
or, " into my school," according to the sense. "To cut in two;" "To get on a 
horse;" "To dash to pieces;" "Office up stairs," — are all allowable as being 
figurative (see Metonymy and Synecdoche, p. 263). 

Notwithstanding implies unsuccessful opposition, and is milder than despite. 

Of is used nearly as much as all the other prepositions together. It gener- 
ally serves to limit the antecedent term by a subsequent term whose meaning 
is not exhausted or expressed by the former. It is the most general word for 
showing whence something comes, or else to what it belongs or pertains. " The 
rivers of America" — place ; " Within ten feet of me ;" " The first month of the year 
— time; 1 '' "Days o/yore;" "A pitcher made of silver 1 ' — material; "The exploits 
of Don Quixote" — source; "The house of my' father"=My father's house ; "The 
brother of the senator;" "A man of we&lth"=encompassed by; " A man of wis- 
dom ;" " The pleasure of thinking of horns"— drawn from; " It makes sense oj 
itself =out of; "The city of London" ^consisting of 

On. " On the floor"— place ; " On the wall ;" "On the ceiling ;" " A boat on 
the river ;" "A city on the river ;" " On the left — right ;" " To stand on pillars ;" 
"Blow on blow" "To play on the flute" — place-}- ; " On New Year's Day" — 
time ;" " To pay on sight ;" " She wept on hearing the report" — time and cause; 
" To keep the eye — the mind on something;" "Chitty on Contracts;" " To be 
on the wing" — support; "To rely on a person's veracity" — support; "To take on 
oath ;" " To live on fruits — by sewing ;" " To go on a voyage ;" " To be on fire :" 
" My blessing on you ;" " To take pity on some one ;" " To have on trial ;" " To 
wait on some one ;" " To be on hand ;" " To be on the alert ;" " On a sudden." 

Out of. "Drawn out of & well;" "Out of joint;" "Out of tune;" " Out of 
taste;" " Made out of wax ; " "Done out of spite." 

Over is allied to cover. It is sometimes to on as a surface is to a point. 
" Over my head;" "Over logs and creeks;" "Over a spell of sickness" — an ob- 
stacle, as it were, in the journey of life; "To look over a book;" " Over a 
month;" " Over a dozen;" "To grieve over calamities;" "To rule over a na- 
tion." A higher position generally gives advantage ; hence superiority is often 
compared to height, and inferiority to lowness. 



PREPOSITIONS. 223 

Since reckons from a point of time. " Since last Christmas." 

Till reckons to a point of time. " Till next Christmas." 

Through. "Through the woods"— place ; "Through many ages" — time; 
"To escape through a crevice" — -place and means; and thus, cause, as, "To fly 
through fear." Hence through approaches by and with so nearly as to be often 
used for suggesting the intermediate or appointed channel for effecting some- 
thing. " I will send you the money through the bank." 

Throughout is a little more forcible than through ; signifying through in 
every part, through to the very end, or through and passing out. " Tliroughout 
the universe — the entire process — the day." 

To implies tendency or approach. To, tcnuard, and into, have something in 
view; along, up, and down, do not. " To the river" — an object; "From morn 
to noon" — time; " To a dozen" — number ; " To a bushel'' — quantity; "Reduced 
to poverty" — state ; " Led to slaughter" — act; "Anxious to learn" — in what respect ; 
" To dance to the violin" — cause or agreement. (See p. 184.) To, with the in- 
finitive, implies a closer connection than in order to. "Politicians endeavor to 
please, in order to obtain as many votes as possible." Here to and in order to 
are not interchangeable. To a question asked me by a surveyor, I answer : 
" Parallel to ;" "At right angles with." 

Toward, towards, less direct than to. " Towards me;" " Toward noon ;" 
" Toward the close of the war ;" " To contribute toward a sufficient sum." 

Under. "Underfoot — water;" "They crept along under the walls of the 
fort;" "Under a dozen;" "Under age;" "To pass under inspection;" "To 
groan under a burden ;" hence power over, — " To be under restraint — under 
afflictions ;" " Given under my signature" — by my authority ; sometimes, " Over 
my signature." " Under the garb of friendship ;" " Innocence presented under 
the figure of a dove." 

- Up. Up, upon, on, are analogous to to, into, in. The prominent idea of 
up is elevation ; of on, place : upon unites both meanings, and is sometimes used 
as a stronger term for on. " Up the ladder — river." See On. 

With. See By and In. " The ship with its cargo ;" " Girls with spark- 
ling eyes;" "A soldier with a musket;" "Enameled with flowers;" "To act 
with firmness." " He died with a fever," implies that both died : say, " of" " To 
dwell in security," not with. " To grow rich by working," not with. " To 
end with a consonant ;" " To end in a consonant, &c. :" the former is perhaps 
better authorized. 

Within. "Within or in the house." u 'Within six months," differs from 
" In six months." " Within a year ago," not in. 

Without. " Without money — friends — beauty — hope." 

The longer or fuller prepositions are often merely a little more forcible than 
the short ones, or slightly modify the sense ; as, Until, amongst, alongside, under- 
neath, unto, excepting. 

The remaining prepositions are most of them either poetic, antique, technical, 
or comic. 

The teacher may interrogate his pupils thus : Abandoned f Ans. To. 
A. — Abandoned to ; abatement of; abhorrent to, from; abhorrence of; abide 
in, at, with, by ; abominable to ; abound in, with ; abridge from ; abridgment of ; 
absent from ; abstain from ; abut on, upon ; accede to ; acceptable to ; access to ; 
accommodate to, with lodgings ; accord with, a thing to ; accordance with ; ac- 
countable to a person, for a thing; accuse of; acquaint with ; acquiesce in; ac- 
quit of; adapted to; add to; address to; adhere to; adjacent to; adjourn to; 
adjudge to ; adjust to ; admonish of; admission to (access), into (entrance) ; ad- 
vantage over, of; advise of, to ; advocate for ; affection for ; affinity to, with, 



224 PREPOSITIONS. 

between ; affection for ; agree with a person, to what is proposed, upon something 
determined; agreeable to; alienate, alien, from ; allude to; alter to, alteration in; 
amenable to; analogous to; analogy to, between; angry with a person, at a 
thing ; annex to ; animadvert on, upon ; answer for, to ; antecedent to ; antipathy 
to, against; anxious about, for ; apology, apologize, for ; appeal to; apply, ap- 
plicable, to ; apprehensive of; appropriate to ; approve of; argue with, against ; 
array with, in ; arrive at ; ask of a person, for what is wanted ; aspire to ; assent 
to; assimilate to; associate with; assure of; atone for ; attach to ; attain to; at- 
tend, attentive, to ; averse, aversion, to, from. 

B. — Banish from one place — to another ; bare of; based on, upon ; beguile of, 
with (the means) ; believe, belief, in, on ; bereave of; bestow on, upon ; betray 
to a person, into a thing ; betroth to ; bigoted to ; bind to, in, upon ; blame for ; 
blush at ; boast, brag, of; border on, upon. 

C. — Call on, upon, or for a person, at a house, for something ; capable of; 
capacity for; careless, careful, of, in, about ; carp at; catch at; caution against ; 
certify to ; change for, to, into ; charge on or against a person, with a thing ; clear 
of; coalesce with ; coincide with ; commune with ; commute (a punishment) to, 
for ; commit to ; communicate to, with ; compare to (to liken unto), with (to view 
in connection with) ; compelled to ; comply, compliance, with ; concede to ; con- 
ceive of; concur with a person, in a measure, to an effect ; condemned for a 
crime, to a punishment ; condescend to ; conduce to; confer on, upon; confide in; 
conform, conformable, to, with; congenial to, with; congratulate on, upon; con- 
secrate to ; consent to ; consign to ; consist of (composed of), in (comprised in), 
with (to agree) ; consistent with ; consonant with ; contend with, against ; contest 
with ; contiguous to ; contrast with ; contrary to ; contradistinction to ; conver- 
sant with persons, in things {about and among are inelegant) ; convert to, into ; 
convict of; convince of; copy after actions, from things ; correspond with (con- 
sistent), to (answering) ; correspondence with, to ; cured of. 

D. — Deal in, by, with; debar from, of; decide on, upon; defend (others) from, 
(ourselves) against ; deficient in ; defraud of; demand of; denounce against a 
person; depend, dependent, on, upon; deprive of; derived from; derogate from ; 
derogatory to; derogation from, to; descended from; desirous of; desist from ; 
despair of; despoil of; destined to; destitute of; detach from; detract from; 
deviate from ; devolve on, upon ; devote to ; dictate to ; die of a disease, by an 
instrument, or by violence, for another ; differ with a person in opinion ; differ, 
different, from; difficulty in; diminish from ; diminution of; disagree with, to 
something proposed ; disagreeable to ; disabled from ; disappointed of what I 
failed to get, in something obtained; disapprove of; discourage from; discou- 
ragement to ; disengaged from ; disgusted at, with ; dislike to ; dismission from ; 
disparagement to; dispose of; disposed to (inclined), for; dispossess of; dis- 
qualify for, from ; dispute with ; dissatisfied with ; dissent from ; distinct, in dis- 
tinction, from ; distinguish from, between ; distrustful of; divested of; divide be- 
tween two, among more ; dote on ; doubt of, about ; dwell in, at, on. 

E. — Eager in, for, after; embark in, for; embellished with ; emerged from; 
employ in, on, upon, about; enamored of, with; encounter with ; encouragement 
to ; encroach on, upon ; endeared to ; endeavor after a, thing ; endowed, endued, 
with ; engaged in (work), with, for ; enjoin on, upon ; enter, entrance, on, upon, 
into ; envious of, at ; equal to, with ; equivalent to ; espouse to ; estimated at ; 
estranged from ; exception from, to, against ; exclude, exclusion, from ; ex- 
clusive of; expelled from ; expert in, at ; extracted from ; expressive of. 

F. — Fall under notice, &c. ; familiar to me, I am familiar with ; fawn on, upon ; 
feed on, upon ; fight with, against, for ; filled with; followed by ; fond of; fondness 
for ; foreign to, from ; formed from (another word) ; founded upon, on, in ; free 
from; friendly to, towards; frightened at; frown at, upon; fruitful m, of; 
full of 



PREPOSITIONS. 22 O 

G. — G-lad of, at — applied sometimes to what concerns another; glance at, 
upon ; glow with; grapple with; grateful to a person, for a favor ; grieve at, for ; 
guard against. 

H. — Hanker after ; happen to, on: healed of; hinder from; hiss at; hold on, 
of in. 

I. — Immersed in ; impatient at, for, of; impenetrable to, by ; impervious to ; im- 
pose on, upon ; inaccessible to ; incentive to ; incorporate with, into ; inconsistent 
with ; inculcate on, upon ; independent, independently, of; indulge with occa- 
sionally, in habitually ; indulgent to ; influence over, on, with ; inform of, about, 
concerning ; initiate into, in; inquire of, after, for, into ; inroad into; insensible to, 
of; inseparable from ; insinuate into; insist on, upon; inspection into, over; in- 
struct in ; intent on, upon ; interfere, intermeddle, with ; intermediate between ; 
intervene between ; introduce into a place, to a person ; intrude on, upon, into some- 
thing enclosed ; inured to ; invested with, in, 

J. — Jealous of; join with, to. 

K. — Knock at, on; known, unknown, to. 

L. — Laden with ; lame of; land at; lean on, upon, against; level with; liberal 
of, to ; liken to ; live in, at, with, on, upon ; long for, after ; look on (in order to 
see), for (in order to find), after — to follow with the eye ; long for, after. 

M. — Made of; marry to ; meddle with; mediate between; meditate on, upon ; 
martyr for ; militate against; mingle with; minister to ; mistrustful of; mix with. 

N. — Necessary to, for ; need of; neglectful of; negotiate with. 

O. — Obedient to; object to, against; observant, observation, of; obtrude on, 
upon ; offend against ; offensive to ; omitted from ; operate on, upon ; opposition 
to ; overwhelmed with, by. 

P. — Part/rom, with ; partake of; participate in, of; partial to ; partiality to, for ; 
patient in, with, of; pay for, to, with; peculiar to ; penetrate into ; persevere in; 
pertinent to ; pitch upon, on ; pleasant to ; pleased with ; plunge into ; possessed 
of; prefer to, before, above; preferable to; preference to, over, before, above; prefix 
to; prejudice against ; prejudicial to ; preserve from; preside over ; press on, upon; 
presume on, upon ; present things to a person ; pretend to ; prevail on, upon, with, 
(to persuade,) over or against (to overcome); prevent from; prey on, upon ; prior 
to; productive of; profit by ; profitable to; prone to ; pronounce against a person, 
on a thing ; protect others from, ourselves against ; protest against ; proud of; 
provide with, for, against ; purge of, from ; pursuant to ; pursuance of. 

Q. — Quarrel with ; quarter on, upon, among ; questioned on, upon, by. 

R. — Reckon on, upon, with; recline on, upon; reconcile to (friendship), with 
(consistency) ; recover from ; reduce to, under (subjection) ; reflect on, upon ; re- 
frain from ; to have regard for, to pay regard to, in or with regard to ; rejoice at y 
in ; relation to ; relish of, for ; (see taste ;) release, relieve, from ; rely on, upon ; 
remark on, upon; remit to; remove from; repent of; replete with; reproached 
for; resemblance to, between; resolve on, upon; rest in, at, on, upon; respect to, 
in or with respect to ; restore to ; restrain from ; retire from ; return to ; rise 
above ; rich, poor, in ; rid of; rob of; rove about, over ; rub against ; rule over. 

S. — Satiate, saturate, with ; save from ; seek for, after ; share in, of, with an- 
other; send to, for ; sick of; significant of; similar to; sink into, in, beneath; sit 
on, upon, in ; skillful in ; smile at, on, upon ; snap, snatch, sneer, at ; solicitude 
about, for ; sorry for; stay in, at, with; stick to, by ; strip of; strive with, against; 
subject to ; submit, submissive, to ; substitute for ; subtract from ; subside into ; 
suitable to, for ; surprised at ; suspected of by ; swerve from ; sympathize with. 

T. — Taste of something enjoyed, taste (=desire or capacity) for; tax with 
something done, for something in view; tend to, towards; thankful of about, 
upon, on ; touch at, on, upon ; transmit to ; troublesome to ; true to ; trust in, to. 

10* 



226 PREPOSITIONS. EXERCISES. 

U. — Unite with, something to; unison with; useful for, io. 

V. — Yalue upon, on ; variation in a plan ; vest in a person, with, in, a thing ; 
void of. 

W. — Wait on, upon, for, at; want of; weary of; weep at, for ; witness of; 
worthy, unworthy, of. 

Y. — Yearn for, towards ; yield to ; yoke with, to. 

The same preposition that is required after a primitive word, is generally re- 
quired after its derivatives ; as, " To comply with," "In compliance with;" but, 
"Dependent on," "Independent of." What preposition should be used, often 
depends on the following word, as well as on the preceding ; as, " To speak to 
an audience ;" " To speak about the war ;" " To speak with eloquence." 



EXERCISES. 
Examples to be Analyzed and Parsed. 

IHrse the prepositions and the adverbs: — 

1. 
The waters issued from* a cave, and spread into a liquid plain. The 
stars retire at the approach of day. We searched for violets on yonder 
hill. A plain path leads through the bottom, between the river and the 
bluffs. The Ehone flows out 13 from b among the Alps. As to the ex- 
penses, we will help to defray them. From virtue to vice, the prog- 
ress is gradual. 

2. 

Washington died at his residence, on the 19th of December, 1797, and 
was buried near the Potomac, among his relatives. The robin and the 
wren are flown, and from the shrub the jay. From crag to crag, the 
rattling peaks among, leaps the live thunder. Hold up 13 the flag. Turn 
over 13 another leaf. 

The window jingled in its crumbled frame ; 

And, through its many gaps of destitution, 
Dolorous moans and hollow sighings came, ' 
Like those of dissolution. — Hood. 

Overhead the dismal hiss 
Of fiery darts in flaming volleys flew — Milton. 

(a.) Ques. What from ? Ans. Issued, from. Ques. From what ? Ans. From a cave. 
Etc. (&.) " From among" is a complex preposition, it consists of two prepositions combined 
and used to show the complex relation between "flows" and "Alps." 

Examples to be Corrected. 

All the liabilities to error in regard to prepositions, may be reduced to the 
following heads : — 

i. Choice. 2. Position. 3. Insertion or omission. 4. Repetition. 

1. Choice. 
In the use of prepositions, great care should be taken to select the 
most appropriate. 

The sultry evening was followed, at night, with a heavy storm of rain. The 
soil is adapted for hemp and tobacco. Congress consists in a Senate and a 



PREPOSITIONS. EXERCISES. 



2*7- 



House of Representatives. Of what does happiness consist ? Not any syllable 
in a word may take the accent. In some derivative words the e is omitted 
The e is left out in some of the derivative words. The government is based in 
republican principles. The Saxons reduced the Britons to their own power. 
Said client believes that said judge is prejudiced to his cause. The easy has no 
resemblance with the other. Some of the warriors wore an extra tuft of feath- 
ers, in distinction to those who had brought in no scalps. . In contradistinc- 
tion from the other. Religion and membership may differ widely with each 
other. The judge is disqualified from deciding in this case. — disqualified 
for — He was accused with having acted unfairly. He died for thirst — with 
the bilious fever. Col. Washington was very ill with a fever. — Irving. You 
may rely in what I say, and confide on his honesty. I have little influence 
with him. — over him. These bonnets were brought in fashion last year. 
This is a very different dinner to what we had yesterday. The bird flew up in 
the tree. Charles let his dollar drop in the creek. The persecutions of these 
wretched people were truly barbarous. — against these — It is an affair on 
which I am not interested. Above this, who shall fix a limit to his cares ? 

He made the order in authority of the instructions he had received. — by 
authority of — But what is my grief in comparison of that which she bears ? 
He ended with a panegyric of modern sciences. I have an abhorrence to such 
politicians. It was no diminution to his greatness. He came of a sudden. 
About two months ago, he went out of a fine morning with a bundle in his hand. 
— Irving. I take a walk of evenings. — a walk every evening; or, — a walk 
almost every evening. He* swerved out of the true course. He does not as- 
pire at political distinction. I was disappointed in the pleasure of meeting 
you. There is no need for so much preparation. His hardships produced 
little change on his appearance. I have been to New Orleans, and I am 
now going for New York. We remained at the South, in a little village. 
You will find me in No. 25, at Olive Street. He was eager of making a dis- 
play. — eager to make — I find no difficulty of keeping up with my class. 
— in keeping up — or, find it no difficulty to keep up — Among every class of 
people, self-interest prevails. They quarreled amongst one another. — with — 
There is constant hostility between these several tribes. He divided his estate 
between his son, daughter, and nephew. Such a series of words generally 
have a comma between each. — after each word. A combat between tw r entj 
Texans against fifty Mexicans. — of . . . against — or, between . . . and — Th 
space between the three lines is the area of the triangle. — within — 

2. Position. 

1. Adjuncts should be so placed in the sentence as to make it cor- 
rect, clear, and elegant. 

2. A needless separation of the preposition from the word which it 
governs, is generally inelegant. 

3. Terms that express time or measure, should not be joined, by a prep- 
osition, to a word which they are not designed to limit. 

There we saw some fellows digging gold from China. A Lecture on the 
methods of teaching G-eography at 10 o'clock. He obtained a situation of great 
profit, in the beginning of his career. These verses were written by a young 
man who has long since lain in the grave, for his amusement. Wanted — A 
young man to take care of some horses, of a religious turn of mind. He went 
to see his friends on horseback. Habits must be acquired of temperance and 
self-denial. In every church it must be admitted there are some unworthy 
members. The customs and laws are very different from ours in some coun- 
tries. Many act so directly contrary to this method, that, from a habit of sav- 



228 PREPOSITIONS. EXERCISES. 

ing time and paper, which they acquired at the university, they write in so 
diminutive a character that they can hardly read what they have written. Are 
these designs which any man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances or in 
any situation, ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow ? Such boatman may re- 
cover, against such master or commander, the wages justly due him, according to 
the service rendered, notwithstanding such contract may be entire, in any court 
having jurisdiction. — R. S. of Mo. 

Whom did he give it to ? To whom did he, &c. I never could ascertain 
what it was useful for. Whom was the message directed to ? Which of the 
books can I find it in ? How much did you send him to market with ? He 
rushed into, and expired in, the flames. — rushed into the flames, and expired in 
them. The first law is different from, and much inferior to, the second. The 
cost of the carriage was added to, and greatly increased, my account. 

My mistress had a daughter of nine years old. — Swift (Omit " of;" for " nine 
years 11 limits "old" and not " daughter") Almost any boy of twelve years old 
knows as much. They enclosed the garden with a wall of six feet high. A 
monument of several centuries old. A room of twenty feet long and eighteen 
feet wide. 

3. Insertion or Omission. 

1. We should not insert or omit prepositions so as to destroy the proper 
connection between other words. Prepositions should not be omitted, 
when required by the sense. 

2. Prepositions should not be inserted or omitted contrary to long 
and general usage. 

It was to your brother to whom I was mostly indebted. It was your 
brother, &c. It was in vain to remonstrate. Allow me to present you with 
a gold watch. — to you a — or, you a — I will now present you with a syn- 
opsis. — Smith's Gram. The performance was approved of by all who saw it. 
Women are governed by fancy in stead of by reason. It stands in the propo- 
sition introduced by toi, instead of in a preceding sentence. — and not in— or 
else allowable. The proper course of action, in this case, is by assumpsit. 
— is assumpsit By a deed of trust there will be a less troublesome security 
than by a mortgage. A deed of trust will, &c. What went ye out for to see ? 
At about what time will you come again? What use is it to me? The 
horned frog is nearly the size of a lizard. The sycamore was fifteen feet diame- 
ter. From having heard of his distress, I sent him relief. From abusing his 
constitution in youth, he became prematurely old. Raving abused, &c. My 
business prevented me attending the last meeting of the Society. He refused 
taking any further notice of it. — refused to take — She could not refrain shed- 
ding tears. I shall oppose the granting this company any more privileges. 1 
shall oppose the granting of any more privileges to, &c. There was no disputing the 
point. — Irving. 

The remark is worthy the fool that made it. The attack is unworthy your 
notice. San Francisco is the other side the Rocky Mountains. The spring is 
near to the house. She sat next us. He was banished the country — ex- 
pelled the college. Many talented men have deserted from the party. The 
court of France or England was to be the umpire. I will consider of your prop- 
osition. I admit of what you say. You have anticipated on what I was 
going to say. It was rather the want of customers than money that induced 
him to abandon his business. — than that of money — Ignorance is the mother 
of fear as well as admiration. I put some apples into the buggy and my 
hat. California is not more noted for its gold than bears. The calf followed 
on after its mother. The passion of anger leads to repentance. Anger leads, 



PREPOSITIONS. OBSERVATIONS. 229 

Ac. Wanted — A young man of from 16 to 21 years of age. The distance from 
before one ear to before the other, is 15 inches. (Change the sentence.) He 
was right in that which you blame him. — for which — She took it more to 
heart than I thought for. —than I thought she would. Let us consider the 
works of nature and art, with proper attention. An event so unexpected to 
my mind and many others. One should not be omitted without the other. 
They should be either both omitted or both inserted. You will seldom find a dull 
fellow of good education, but (if he happen to have some leisure on his hands) 
will turn his head to one of those two amusements for all fools of eminence 
politics or poetry. — British Essayists. — to politics or to poetry. 

4. Repetition. 

A preposition, relating to a series of objects, must be used but once 
before the entire series, or be repeated before each term of the series. 

He is a man of sagacity, experience, and of honesty. By industry, by econ- 
omy, and good luck, he soon accumulated a fortune. Their hearts are torn by 
the worst, most troublesome and insatiable of all passions, — by avarice, by ambi- 
tion, by fear, and jealousy. — Burke. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. What preposition is most appropriate in any given instance, does not always 
depend on the preceding or on the following term, but on the relation of the terms, 
or on the view that is taken of them. A different preposition may sometimes express 
the meaning as well, or more forcibly ; or it may be sufficiently definite by the aid 
of some principle in the Figures, to suggest the relation intended. To be able to 
use prepositions and conjunctions rightly, requires not only a thorough knowledge 
of them, but also an extensive and sagacious insight into the whole fabric of lan- 
guage. 

2. Adjuncts may often be variously placed in sentences, though they should 
generally be placed as near as possible to the words to which they relate. A trouble- 
some adjunct is sometimes placed most advantageously at the beginning, seldom 
at the end. Adjuncts should not be needlessly inverted. " Of whom did you buy 
it ?" is a better expression than " Whom did you buy it off" But when the relative 
is omitted, the preposition must be put at the end ; as, " I have nothing to tie him 
with,' 11 i. e., I have nothing with which to tie him. To place an object common to 
both, after a transitive verb and a preposition, or after two or more prepositions 
separated by several intervening words, sometimes produces a disagreeable hiatus 
in the sense. When the objective term is short, it is better to place it after the first 
governing word, and its pronoun after the second ; but when it is long, it may be 
allowed to stand after all the governing words. " Here he saw, and was soon after 
surrounded by, several Indians ;" better, "Here he saw several Indians, by whom 
he was soon afterwards surrounded." " The second proposal was different fro?n y 
and inferior to, the first ;" better, " The second proposal was different from the 
first, and inferior to it." " He has quarreled with and betrayed every friend that 
oe ever had. " He was descended from, and allied to, some of the best families of 
the State." 

We may say, "A child of six years," or, "A child of six years of age," or rather, 
"A child six years old;" but not, " A child of six years old," for " six years" 
should modify " old," and not " child." A necessary modifying phrase or clause 
may sometimes be allowed to separate the adjunct from the preceding term ; as, 
" In this dialect we find written nearly the whole of what remains to us of ancient 
Greek literature." — Crosby. Adjuncts, in regard to position as well as signification, 
are much like adverbs and adjectives. 

When not emphatically distinguished, the indirect object usually precedes 
the other ; as, " Give me the knife :" but when placed after the other, the preposi- 
tion must be expressed ; as, " Give the knife to me" [not to some other person]. 

3. When the insertion or the omission of the preposition would cause a slight 
variation in the sense, we should be very careful to select the most appropriate ex- 



230 CONJUNCTIONS. 

pression. To know differs from to know of; and to meet, from to meet with, " I met 
with an old friend, who showed me all the curiosities of" the city." "I met the 
stranger, but passed on without stopping." For can not, according to modern 
usage, be properly used before the infinitive. "What went ye out for to see?" 
should be, " What went ye out to see ?" When the antecedent term relates to two 
or more adjuncts after it, the preposition must, in many cases, be repeated, to 
show this common relation ; as, " Eeligion is a comfort in youth as well as old 
age." — as in old age. " Wealth is more conducive to wickedness than piety." 
— than to piety. 

4. Judicious repetition adds sometimes much to the vigor and solemnity of the 
sentence. " This bill, though rejected here, will make its way to the public, to the 
nation, to the remotest wilds of America." — Chatham. " All his talents and virtues 
did not save him from unpopularity— ^/>ora civil war— from a prison— from a bar — 
from a scaffold !" — Macaulay. To avoid the tediousness caused by placiug many ob- 
jects after the same preposition, or by repeating the same preposition very often, a 
long series of terms is sometimes elegantly separated into groups, as in the follow- 
ing sentence : " I could demonstrate that the whole of your political conduct has 
been one continued series of weakness, temerity, and despotism ; of blundering ig- 
norance and wanton negligence ; and of the most notorious servility, incapacity, 
and corruption." — Chatham. 

11. CONJUNCTIONS. 

? 382. A conjunction is a word that joins something to 

another part of the discourse, and shows how the parts so connected 

are viewed with respect to each other. 

Ex. — " The chain will gall, though wreathed with roses." "If you would enjoy 
the fruit, pluck not the blossom." " John and James are happy, oecause they 
are good." 

? 383. Two conjunctions are sometimes combined, and some 

phrases are customarily used as conjunctions. 

Ex.— "And yet I would not get riches thu3, even if*\ were a beggar." " John, 
as well as Arthur, must be punished, inasmuch as they have both been dis- 
obedient." But when the words of a phrase can be parsed as well according to 
their literal meaning, or when the conjunctions have each a separate influence over 
the sentence, they should be parsed separately. "A man's a man for all that." 
"But, if he fails, all is lo8t"=But all is lost, ifh.Q fails. 

1 Conjunctions maybe divided into three chief classes; coordi- 
nate, subordinate, and corresponding. 

? 384. A coordinate conjunction coimects parts of equal rank,, 
or parts of which one does not modify the other. 

? 385. A subordinate conjunction connects parts of unequal 
rank, or parts of which one modifies the other. 

? 386. A corresponding conjunction suggests another con- 
junction, and assists it in connecting the same parts. 

Ex. — And, but, or, nor ; if, that, because, therefore ; either — or, neither — nor. 
The corresponding conjunctions are included in the other classes, and are easily 
distinguished ; the coordinate conjunctions are all the others, except the subordi- 
nate ; and the subordinate are those which join on parts that have the sense of sub- 
stantives, adjectives, or adverbs, or that answer to the questions implying these 
elements. "That he is strictly honest, is true." What is true? "The belief 
that the soul is immortal." What belief? "I came that I might hear him." 
Came why ? 

? 387. And, or, and nor, are the conjunctions most frequently 



CONJUNCTIONS. 231 

used for connecting single words. And takes all together ; or, one 

at a time, or else any one to the exclusion of the rest; and nor, one 

at a time, and negatively. 

Ex. — " Bring your book, slate, and atlas." M Bring your book, slate, or atlas." 
"God bids the ocean roar, or bids its roaring cease." "The house has neither 
doors nor windows." 

? 388. But, if, and that, are the next most important conjunc- 
tions, and they are mostly used in connecting propositions. But 
implies opposition of meaning ; if, something conditional ; and that 
is often a sort of handle to a group of words conceived as a whole. 

Ex. — "Milton has fine descriptions of morning; but not so many as Shake- 
speare." "If spring has no blossoms, autumn will have no fruit." " It is strange 
that he never writes to us." 

? 389. One conjunction may sometimes be used in place of an- 
other ; but never when a meaning different from the one intended, 
can be inferred. 

Ex. — " I know him, for I went to school with him." " I know him, because I 
went to school with him." " God bids the ocean roar, or bids its roaring cease." 
" God bids the ocean roar, and bids its roaring cease." " He sowed little, and 
reaped much." "He sowed little, but reaped much." "Conjunctions connect 
words and sentences together," should be, "Conjunctions connect words or 
sentences." 

? 390. For the sake of brevity, elegance, or vigor, conjunctions 

are sometimes omitted, when the mind can connect the parts and see 

their dependence. 

Ex. — "'Twas certain [that] he could write, and cipher too." " Had I been at 
home, you should have staid" =If I had been at home, you should have staid. 
" The woods are hushed, [and] the waters rest, 
[And] The lake is dark and still." — Mrs. Remans. 
" The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse ; 
[ For] The Tories own no argument but force." 

? 391. Conjunctions are usually first omitted, and then expressed ; 

other words are usually first expressed, and then omitted. 

Ex. — John, [and] James, and Thomas, were drowned. You may go, or [you 
may] stay. 

? 392. The conjunction is sometimes used where it is usually 
omitted. 

1. At the beginning of a sentence, to make its introduction less 
abrupt ; 2. In the body of a sentence, when the speaker means to 
dwell on particulars, in order that the hearer may duly appreciate 
what he says. 

Ex. — "And tell me, I charge you, ye clan of my spouse, 

Why fold ye your mantles, why cloud ye your brows ?" — Campbell. 

" Italy teems with recollections of every kind ; for courage, and wisdom, and 
power, and arts, and science, and beauty, and music, and desolation have all made 
it their dwelling-place." See also p. 234. 

? 393. When conjunctions connect words or phrases, these are 

nearly always in the same construction. 

Ex. — "Mary , Jane, and Alice, \ went into the garden, and brought some large, 
ripe, and juicy peaches." Here the connected nouns are nominatives to the saine 



232 CONJUNCTIONS. 

verbs, the connected verbs or phrases have the same subject, and the connected 
adjectives qualify the same noun. 

Most of the conjunctions have evidently emigrated from other 

parts of speech. 

Ex. — Both, either, that, adj. ; then, yet, as, adv. ; except, if (=give), provided, 
seeing, verbs. 



Connectives may, in general, be divided into pure conjunctions, 
conjunctive adverbs, conjunctive phrases, and conjunctive or relative 
pronouns. 

And is the chief conjunction, and implies addition. It either connects parts 
that may be referred separately to a third, or it connects parts that must be re- 
ferred conjointly to a third. To avoid this latter sense, we must sometimes use 
or or some other connective. " John and James study"=John studies, and James 
studies. " John and Kate are a smiling couple;" not, John is a smiling couple, 
and Kate is a smiling couple. " Conjunctions connect words and sentences," may 
mean, "Conjunctions connect words to sentences;" hence we should say, " Con- 
junctions connect words or sentences." 

As. "As you have come, I will go with y<m"=since. " You "are welcome 
as flowers in May" — comparison. "A letter represents an elementary sound ; 
as, a, b, c ;" i. e., such a sound as a, b, or c, represents. " This is your duty as an 
instructor" — apposition. And so, perhaps, in this somewhat anomalous sentence, 
"England can spare such men as him" — Brougham, it is best to parse him as in 
apposition with men, being comprised in it. As should be used after such im- 
plying similarity or comparison, and sometimes after same used in the sense of 
such. As should be used before the infinitive expressing a consequence. ' ' He 
behaved so badly as to be expelled"=^ai he was expelled. As, before a parti- 
ciple, sometimes implies cause, or points to the special view to be taken. " He 
was tried as having passed counterfeit money." " He was represented to us 
as being well educated in mathematics." "The soldiers were unprovided, as 
were also the omcers"==a^ so. As — as, as — so, so — as, such — as, imply com- 
parison. 

Although. See Though. 

Because=fo/ cause of. " The water is cool, because I put ice into the 
pitcher" — natural cause. " The water is cool, because there is moisture on the 
pitcher" — logical cause, reason. The one shows why it is so, and the other why 
I know it. "A man should not be despised because he is poor." 

As is most incidental, or takes the slightest notice of an admitted cause; since 
is more formal and serious, and invites attention to the alleged cause or reason ; 
for is less formal than because ; because is the most formal and expressive word ; 
inasmach as implies an inference drawn only to the extent of a limited cause. 

Both — and=the one as well as the other; not only the one, but also the 
other. 

But. "Wide will wear, but narrow will tear"==ow the contrary. "He never 
could have been elected, but by my exertions in his behalf "—except. "I could 
not but notice how much he was conmsed"=cfo otherwise than. "The postboy 
is not so tired but that he can whistle"( — G-. BROWx)=±=that . . . .not. 

But is either a pure adversative or a reserving adversative ; however is milder, 
takes the least notice of objections, or simply waives thorn ; yet admits to some 
extent, but holds on to some weighty offset or obstacle ; still implies that the 
position is unmoved after all ; notwithstanding braves all opposition ; and never- 
theless is the strongest term, implying that the position is not weakened in 
the least. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 233 

Either corresponds to or ; and neither, to nor. It is sometimes necessary to 
apply them to more than two. The connected parts should be equally full, and 
as nearly alike as they can conveniently be. This last remark applies also to 
both, and sometimes to whether. 

Except. "He took no further notice of him, except when he happened to 
meet hxm"=tdke out "Except ye be born again, ye can not enter the kingdom 
of heaven"=mtess. 

For has all the meanings of because, except the last. See Because. 

If* derived from give=grant, allow. "If it continue to rain, the river will 
ris§" — natural consequence. "If Yirgil was the better artist, Homer was the 
greater genius" — logical consequence. " It has not been decided if the war is to 
continue or not;" better, whether. If the condition is granted, the inference is 
established; thus, "If A=B, C=D; A=B; therefore C=D." "If JEschines 
joined in the public rejoicing, he is inconsistent ; if he did not, he is unpatriotic ; 
but he either joined or did not join, therefore he is either inconsistent or un- 
patriotic." — Demosthenes. Such an argument is called a dilemma. There is 
sometimes nice choosing between if and when. When always has a tincture of 
time ; if never. "A diphthong is proper if both the vowels are sounded ;" not, 
"A diphthong is proper when both the vowels are sounded;" for the latter may 
imply that the same diphthong is sometimes proper, and sometimes improper. 

Lest. "I will write to him, lest he neglect my business"=^a^ not. " Cain's 
apprehensions were excited, lest he should meet the retribution of his crime"= 
for fear that. "Afraid lest" — Johnson ; " Fearful lest" — Prescott ; better, that. 

"Moreover and furthermore appear to connect only paragraphs." — G. W. 
Gibbs. "Moreover, by them is thy servant warned." — Bible. This is generally, 
though not always, true. 

Nevertheless. " It is true that Homer sometimes nods ; nevertheless, he is 
still the greatest of ancient poets." 

Notwithstanding. " Great quantities of grain were raised, notwithstanding 
the soil is so poor." 

Or is either exclusive or distributive. " The punishment is $100, or imprison- 
ment in jail for three months;" not both. "Sheep are white or black;" i. e., 
some are white, and some are black. "The relative pronoun is. resumptive or 
restrictive ; i. e., sometimes resumptive, and sometimes restrictive. Or may 
imply either a difference in things, or merely a difference in words. " In a cabin 
or in a palace ;" "In an Indian hut, or wigwam." In this latter sense, either 
can not be used ; and hence either is often used or needed to exclude this latter 
sense. Sometimes else is added to or, for the same purpose. To avoid the am- 
biguous sense of or, lawyers use alias, when there is a mere change of names. 
See Whereas. 

Neither is the proper correlative of nor ; sometimes it is used as a correla- 
tive to other negatives, and sometimes it is used as an independent conjunction. 
" She is neither handsome nor amiable." " My brows become nothing else, nor 
that well neither." — Shak. "Be not too tame neither." — Shah. "He had no 
money, neither could he find any employment." Whether, in two of the fore- 
going examples, either or neither should be used after nor, custom has not decided 
as yet, though I incline to think neither should be considered the proper 
strengthening or correlative word. 

Nor. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether or or nor should be used 
to continue a negative sense after a preceding negative. Usage seems to give 
the preference to nor ; especially when the parts connected are long, or em- 
phatically distinguished, or do not have a common dependence en the first nega- 
tive. " The King has no arbitrary power to give him ; your Lordships havfc 
not; nor the Commons ; nor the whole Legislature." — Burke. "Never calum- 



234 CONJUNCTIONS. 

niate any man, nor give the least encouragement to calumniators." Here or 
could not have been used. " Yet Paul did not waste all his hours in this idle 
vaporing, nor in the pleasures of the table." — Prescott. "But not thieves; nor 
robbers; nor mobs; nor rioters, insurgents, or rebels." — Parsons on Contracts. 
"I can not see better than another, nor walk so well." — Garriclc. "I can not 
tell which way his Majesty went, nor whether there is any one with him." — « 
Fielding. 

But or may be preferable to nor, when the parts are short and closely con- 
nected, or when the preceding negative plainly affects all the parts, or when the 
parts are not emphatically distinguished, or when the latter part is merely ex- 
planatory or alternative. "No senator or representative shall be appointed to," 
&c. " This was not to be ascribed chiefly or solely to political animosity."— 
Macaulay. "No tie of gratitude or of honor could bind him." — Id. "So long 
as they did not meddle with politics or religion." — Prescott. "No special words, 
or form, are necessary to make the contract binding." — Parsons. Nor sometimes 
cuts off preceding, modifying, or other words, and then or must be used ; as, 
"You can not be too exact or honest in your business," i. e., nor too honest. 
" You can not be too exact nor honest in your business," implies that it is im- 
possible to be honest. " These syllables are not always sounded or accented in 
the same way." " There was no excess of fraud or cruelty, of which he was not 
capable." — Macaulay. Here nor would suggest "no cruelty," and not, " no ex- 
cess of cruelty." Nor sometimes allows the word after it to have the widest 
application ; as, "There is no person nor law to prevent him," i. e., nor law in 
general. Better: " There is no person, no law," etc., or, " There is no person or 
law," etc., or, " There is no person nor any law," etc. When or would suggest 
that the latter part is merely alternative when it really is not so, nor must be 
used, or else some other mode of expression ; as, " No dependent proposition, 
nor clause," &c, or, "No dependent proposition, or other clause," &c. 
" Seasons return, but not to me returns Seasons return, but not to me returns 

Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, Day, nor the sweet approach of even or morn, 
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Nor sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine." Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. 

Milton. Goold Brown's Emendation. 

Or and nor are sometimes used by poets in stead of either and neither. ' ' Or 
floating loose, or stiff with mazy gold." — Milton. "Nor in sheet nor in shroud 
we wound him." — Wolfe. 

Provided. "At the father's death the property is divided equally, provided 
there is no will to the contrary." 

Since. The cause or motive always precedes in time ; hence since may be 
used as a conjunction. " Since you have brought your hounds, wo will take 
a hunt." 

Still. " Though their homes were laid waste, still the spirit of the people 
was invincible"=?/d even then. 

Than should be used after comparatives, and after other,, else, otherwise, 
rather, and words of similar meaning. Besides may also be used after else or 
other, when the sense requires it. It joins on something as additional, or to be 
included with what has been previously mentioned. " He will hold the land 
against all others than the king;" i. e., but not against him. "He will hold 
the land against all others besides the king;" i. e., not merely against him, but 
against all others too. 

That properly introduces a consequence or purpose ; sometimes it heads a 
group of words that form an expanded explanation in reference to some other 
word. " There was such a noise that we could not study." " I came that I 
might assist you." " The Bible is such that a child can understand it, and yet 
a philosopher may study it all his life." After words of fearing, doubting, deny- 
ing, and some others, but, but what, but that, lest, or lest that, should not be used 



CONJUNCTIONS. 235 

for that. " I do not doubt but that you will succeed," seems to except the very 
thing not excepted: say, "I do not doubt that you will succeed." 

Therefore. " It has rained, therefore the grass will grow"=natural conse- 
quence.. " The dust is laid, therefore it has rained" — logical consequence, conclusion. 

Then is less formal than therefore, and so is still less formal ; hence refers to 
a cause near at hand ; thence to a remoter one ; wherefore to something imme- 
diately preceding ; therefore deduces an important conclusion, and often refers to 
a series of causes or reasons ; accordingly introduces what chimes in with nature 
and reason or some admitted statement ; and consequently sums up matters in the 
most formth style. 

Though, although, imply admission or opposition. (See the preceding 
paragraph.) " The Spaniards pushed on, although the barbarians clambered up, 
and broke in upon their ranks" notwithstanding. — " though the barbarians" 
=tbe barbarians, however — As tlwugh is often improperly used for as if. 

Unless attaches to a clause the exception which would establish the oppo- 
site clause. "A man can not be convicted, unless he is guilty "=ifnot. "The 
accused is set at liberty, unless he has been convicted' , ==&^^ not. . . .if 

Whereas. "Whereas it doth appear that one Isaac Bertram, alias William 
Burton," &c.=since, or, inasmuch as. "His good deeds are never thought of, 
wJiereas his evil ones are everywhere told and exaggerated"=i£>Me, on the 
contrary. 

Whether. See If and Either. 

Yet. «' Though resistance to the tyrant spread desolation over our lands, 
yet future industry may repair them"-=future industry, however, may, &c. 

Again, also, however, now, nay, even, further, furthermore, namely, therefore, 
wherefore, otherwise, likewise, so, still, thus, else, accordingly, consequently, and a 
few other such words, though originally adverbs, are considered by many gram- 
marians conjunctions when they stand near the beginning of a clause or sen- 
tence, or when they introduce something. Most of them have acquired their 
conjunctive sense by ellipsis. The pupil should consider whether they modify 
according to their usual meaning, or connect like conjunctions, and then parse 
them accordingly. It may sometimes be a matter of little consequence to which 
class they are referred, provided their meaning, or force in the sentence, is fully 
understood. 

Some of these words are occasionally used to avoid a too frequent repetition 
of some very common conjunctions ; such as and, or, but. Sometimes they 
merely assist or strengthen the conjunction. "He has a laborious profession; 
but it is very lucrative." " He has a laborious profession ; however, it is very 
lucrative." "The corn was sold, and also delivered, before we saw it, or even 
heard of it." 

Conjunctive adverbs have already been considered. See p. 209. 

Conjunctive phrases are such as, on the contrary, on the other hand, the moment 
that, as well as. Most of them are often used to relieve or strengthen the ordi- 
nary connectives. Some clauses are connected simply by having a correlative 
sense ; and the phrases which give them this sense, may also be termed conjunc- 
tive phrases. "The more we have, the more we want." 

The longer conjunctions or expressions are sometimes merely a little more 
emphatic or forcible. 

All the relative pronouns attach clauses in the sense of adjectives or nouns. 
(See pp. 95-98.) Hence and is often improperly used before relative clauses. 
"The windmill on the hill, and which was built last year, has been blown 
down." Omit and. " Here lies buried Thomas Brown, who founded this city, 
and who died in 179*7." Here and is proper, for it joins the relative clause to 
the one preceding it, while who joins it to the antecedent. 



236 CONJUNCTIONS. EXERCISES. 

EXERCISES. 
Examples to be Analyzed and Parsed. 

Parse the conjunctions, prepositions, and adverbs : — 

1. 

Her eyes are bright and* blue. The ship carried off a load of ice ; and b 
brought back sugar, coffee, and spices. Never show your teeth, unless 
you can bite. Talk not too much, nor of thyself. Fear Go J, and keep 
his commandments ; for this comprehends the whole duty of man. To 
learn in youth, is less painful than to be ignorant in old age. No other 
persons are so 13 blind as 15 those 10 who will not see. 

2. 

He supposed that his defeat gave us hope thai he would yield to our 
forces, inasmuch as he believed we were sure that he could now receive 
no re enforcements. — Washington. 

However, since the best of us have too many infirmities to answer for, 
we ought not to be too severe upon those of others ; and therefore, if our 
brother is in trouble, we ought to help him, without inquiring over seriously 
what produced it. — Swift 

We are annoyed either d by our own follies, vices, and misfortunes, or 
by those of others ; so that the greater part of life, with the many, con- 
sists of suffering and sorrow. — Johnson. 

(&.) is a conjunction (def.) ; coordinate, it connects parts of which one does not mod- 
ify the other; copulative, it implies addition ; and here connects " bright" and "blue" ac- 
cording to Rule XV. (b.) is a conjunction, etc. ; it implies addition; and here connects 

two phrases, according to Rule XV. (c.) ''Inasmuch as" is a conjunctive phrase, or simply a 
conjunction, etc. ; it implies cause or reason ; and here connects clauses or sentences, accord- 
ing to Rule XV. (d.) is a corresponding conjunction, it assists another conjunction, etc. 

Examples to be Corrected. 

All the liabilities to error in regard to conjunctions or connectives, may be 
reduced to the following heads : — 

1. Choice. 2. Position. 3. Insertion or omission. 4. The 
parts connected. 

1. Choice. 

1. The simplest and most appropriate connective should always be 
selected. 

2. Two or more connectives occupying different places in the sentence, 
and serving to unite the same parts, should exactly correspond. 

Your notions are too refined, so as we are not likely to agree. — so that — 
He was dismissed, not so much because he was too young, but because he was 
too unskillful. — as because — A conjunction connects words, phrases, and 
clauses. The land is equally adapted to farming or to pasturage. To borrow 
or to lend may be equally imprudent. Proportion is simple and compound. 
— either. . . .or — I can not conceive how my horse got away, without some- 
body untied him. — unless — I do not know why he should have bought the 
lot, without he bought it for speculation. The report is the same with that 



CONJUNCTIONS. EXERCISES. 237 

which I heard. — the same as that — ■ I have the same opinion of the matter 
with my friend. A man of great ability, but for all that he is not successful. 
— and yet — They told us how that it happened. — how it — He is too reck- 
less and indolent that we should put confidence in him. — for us to put — The 
multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace. The donation 
was the more acceptable, that it was given without solicitation. I will see if 
it snows or not. — whether — Do you know if the mail has arrived ? Ii a 
body moves in a curve, the curve is in one plane. When, &c. The last of 
the horses had scarcely crossed the bridge, than the head of the third battalion 
appeared on the other side — Harper's Magazine. I will go except I should be 
ill. I saw them all unless two or three. So as that his doctrines were em- 
braced by great numbers. To go by water will be equally as expensive as to 
go by land. 

He looked as though he could eat up an ox, and pick his teeth with the horns. 
— Irving. — as if — I will assist you, if that you can not do the work your- 
self. Some useful maxims, and which I shall never forget, I learned from him. 
— maxims, which — Some of the land, and for which he paid the highest price, 
was subject to overflow. He soon discovered some qualities in her, of a dis- 
agreeable nature, and which gradually implanted aversion. The money was 
stolen at the time that the boat was landing. At the time that I saw her, she 
was young and beautiful. Caesar wrote in the same manner that he fought. 
This is one reason that he will not comply. — why — A wise man will be 
contented that his glory shall be deferred till such a time as he shall be traly 
glorified. — till the time at which — He holds no opinion but what is supported 
by authority and reason. — Kent. This passion arises from much the same cause 
as sympathy. — Burke. Bruce spoke of himself and his compeers as being 
neither Scottish or English, but Norman, barons. — Scott. I could not buy it 
nor borrow it. — neither ... .nor — His life is neither tossed in boisterous 
seas or the vexatious world, or lost in slothful ease. He has no love nor vene- 
ration for his superiors. Neither flatter or contemn the rich or the great. 
There was no place so hidden nor remote as the plague did not find it. We 
need not, nor do not, confine the purposes of God. — and — ' I will defraud 
nobody, nor nobody shall defraud me. No problem is so difficult which he can 
not solve. — that he can not solve it. No occupation is so easy and simple, but 
it requires some care and cultivation. 

He could not deny but what he borrowed the money. — deny that — There 
is no question but the universe has certain bounds to it. — Addison. I have no 
doubt but that the pistol is a relic of the buccaneers. — Irving. A corrupt gov- 
ernor is nothing else but a reigning sin. — than a — She thinks of little else 
but dressing and visiting. He is fond of nothing else but play and mischief. 
This is none other but the gate of Paradise. fairest flower, no sooner blown 
but blasted ! — Milton. Unaccommodated man is no more but such a poor, bare, 
forked animal as thou art. — Shah I can not otherwise reduce these fractions 
but by multiplying by the denominators. There is no other umbrella here but 
mine. The book is not as accurate as I wished it to be. — so accurate — He 
is, as far as I can judge, well qualified. So still he sat as those who wait till 
judgment speak the doom of fate. His weakness is such as that he can not 
sit up. Do your work so as that you will not be obliged to do it again. There 
is no disposition naturally so good as that it does not require cultivation. I will 
not go away till your brother returns. (Perhaps allowable ; though before seems 
preferable to till) The loafer seems to be created for no other purpose but to 
keep up the ancient and honorable order of idleness. — Irving. — other . . . .than — 
or, no purpose. . . .except — Such writers have no other standard but what ap- 
pears to be fashionable and popular.— Blair's Rhetoric. 



238 CONJUNCTIONS. EXERCISES. 

2. Position, 

(See page 213.) 

He is unqualified for either teaching mathematics or languages. I shall 
neither depend on you nor on him. — neither on you nor on him. The farm 
will then either be rented or sold. Some nouns are either used in the singular 
or in the plural number. Some nouns are used either in the singular or the 
plural number. Mules are both imported from Kentucky and Missouri. Mules 
are imported both from Kentucky and Missouri. Mules are imported from 
both Kentucky and from Missouri 

3. Insertion or Omission. 

1. Connectives should not be used so frequently as to encumber the 
sentence. 

2. Connectives should not be used so seldom that the discourse is ren- 
dered too fragmentary, or the connection between the parts obscure. 

John, and Mary, and "William, and Susan, went to visit their uncle. He is 
a man of visionary notions, unacquainted with the world, unfit to live in it. 
The important relations of masters and servants, and husbands and wives, and 
brothers and sisters, and friends and citizens. While the earth remaineth, seed- 
time and harvest, cold, heat, summer, winter, day and night, shall not cease. 
It happened one day he went out of curiosity to see the great Duke's lions. — 
Addison. Surely no man is so infatuated to wish for a government different 
from that which we have. 



4. The Parts Connected. 

1. To vary coonected or related parts needlessly, in kind or form, is 
generally inelegant. 

2. When a* part has a common dependence on two connected parts 
before it or after it, it should be proper when construed with each. 

He managed the affair wisely and with caution. — wisely and cautiously — or, 
with wisdom and caution. In the morning of life we set out with joy and hope- 
fully, but we soon pursue our journey sorrowfully and with despondence. En- 
joying health, and to live in peace, are great blessings. You may take some 
or all the apples in the basket. (Hardly allowable ; say rather, " You may take 
some of the apples in the basket, or all of them") He either could not, nor wished, 
to refute the argument. It is grammatically independent, but referring logic- 
ally to some indefinite person. To borrow is easier than paying. — than to 
pay. She was a young lady of great beauty, and possessing an ample fortune . 
— and an ample fortune. The author is more remarkable for strength of senti- 
ment than harmonious language. — than for harmony of language. He did 
not mention Leonora, nor that her father was dead. — nor her father's death. 
He can bribe, but he is not able to seduce ; he can buy, but he has not the power 
of gaining ; he can lie, but no one is deceived by him. — but he can not — He 
embraced the cause of liberty faintly, and pursued it without resolution ; he grew 
tired of it when he had much to hope, and gave it up when there was no 
ground of apprehension. 

He ought and will go this evening. — ought to go and will go — He can 
and ought to give more attention to his business. Cedar is not so hard but 
more durable than oak. — so hard as oak, but more durable. She is fairer, 
but not so amiable, as her sister. It is different but better than the old. The 
court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of the common law. 



CONJUNCTIONS. OBSERVATIONS. 239 

— Addison. We could not find the place nor the persons by whom the goods 
nad been concealed. That lot is preferable and cheaper than the other. The 
opinions of the few must be overruled and submit to the opinions of the many. 
Into this cave we luckily found the way, and a comfortable shelter. — and it 
afforded us a comfortable shelter. The comparison depends on the sound or the 
number of syllables composing the word. Whatever we do, shall be displayed 
and heard in the clearest light. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. By means of conjunctions, the speaker or writer intimates that his discourse 
is to be continued, and generally how he means what he is about to say to be re- 
garded in reference to what he has already said. They serve to unite, or bind 
together, the several parts of sentences, or to attach additional sentences to the pre- 
ceding discourse. It has been said that they are to other parts of discourse what 
nails and mortar are to other building materials. 

Conjunctions depend perhaps more on the mind than on the external world, or 
less on the outward world than most other words ; and hence those of one language 
can perhaps never be all precisely translated by those of another. If I say to" you, 
"Our tea is brought from China, and our coffee from the Indies, 7 ' I bring together, 
into one sentence, things not necessarily connected by nature : if I suspect that 
you believe both are brought from China, I would be apt to say, "Our tea is 
Drought from China, but our coffee is brought from the Indies;" or, "Though our 
tea is brought from China, yet our coffee is "brought from the Indies." The speaker 
or writer has always something in view, or supposes a certain tendency in the 
minds of those whom he addresses ; and he selects his conjunctions accordingly. 
As the number of conjunctions is comparatively small for all the windings and 
labyrinths of thought, we may infer that conjunctions are used with considerable 
vagueness, and have various shades of meaning, which must often be inferred 
rather from the parts connected, than from any definition that can be given. In 
reasoning, the effect of the conjunctions, and the meaning of the parts connected, 
should always be very carefully examined. 

3, That, if, and some other conjunctions, are frequently omitted to avoid heavi- 
ness or harshness of expression, or when the connection and dependence of the 
parts is sufficiently obvious. " I am satisfied that is the proper plan"=I am satis- 
lied that that is the proper plan. " Were it so"=J7* it were so. The judicious in- 
sertion or omission of conjunctions sometimes contributes much to the elegance or 
expressiveness of sentences. Repetition implies deliberation, or a desire to make 
the most of the matter. The omission of the conjunction usually implies rapidity, 
haste, or so deep an interest, on the part of the speaker, in what is uttered, that he 
can not pay attention to connectives or unimportant words. A series of terms are 
sometimes elegantly connected in pairs or groups. See pp. 327, 338. 

The following paragraphs exhibit, the one, frugality, the other, profusion, in the 
use of connectives, carried perhaps to the farthest point of endurance : — 

" Morning came : we rushed to the fight ; from wing to wing is the rolling 
strife. They fell like the thistle's head beneath the autumnal winds. In armor 
came a stately form : I mixed my strokes with the chief. By turns our shields 
are pierced: loud rung our steely mails. His helmet fell to the ground. In 
brightness shone the foe. His eyes, two pleasant flames, rolled between his wan- 
dering locks. I knew Cathmor of Atha ; I threw my spear on the earth. Dark 
we turned, and silent passed to mix with other foes." — Ossian. 

"And then the three companies blew the trumpets, and brake the pitchers, 
and held the lamps in their hands, and the trumpets in their right hands to blow 
withal. And they cried, The sword of the Lord, and of Gideon. And they stood 
every man in his place round about the camp ; and all the host ran, and cried, and 
Ml."— Bible. 

4. When the mind naturally expects uniformity of structure, a deviation is 
generally harsh, and should be avoided. Hence, for instance, "He went to plun- 
der, instead of governing, the colony," though a mode of expression used by good 
writers, would probably be better expressed by saying, " to plunder, and not to 
govern," or, " rather to plunder than to govern." But when the sense or even the 



240 INTERJECTIONS. 

melody of the sentence requires a difference of structure, a deviation is allowable ; 
as, " He lias merely strung together words grammatically, and without absurdity. " 
To say, " He has merely struDg together words grammatically, and not absurdly," 
might convey a different meaning. 

A part relating to two or more connected parts, is usually construed in the 
miud with each, and hence it should make sense with each. "He can and ought 
to go this evening"=He can to and ought to go this evening. " It is different and 
inferior to the second"=It is different to and iv ferior to the second. Therefore 
say, "He can go and ouaht to go this evening ;" 'It is different from the second, 
and inferior to it." "He was as much belf f ed, but less admired, than his 
brother' '=He was as much beloved than his bi other, but less admired than his 
brother : say, " He was as much beloved as his brother, but less admired." In 
such sentences, it is customary to make the third part relate to only one of the 
connected parts, by completing the construction with the first connected part, and 
requiring the reader to supply the third part, in a suitable form, after the second 
connected part. When the two connected parts are very short, and the other part 
is very long, I question the impropriety of placing the latter after the other two, 
and requiring the reader to supply it in its proper form after the first of the con- 
nected parts. Why not supply a proper expression after the first, as well as after 
the second, of the connected parts? "An improper fraction is equal to, or greater 
than, 1, because it expresses as many or more parts than it takes to equal a unity — 
D. P. bolbum. To put the latter part of this sentence in a different form, would 
make the sentence rather stiff, aftected, and pedantic. Besides, the construction 
seems to be no worse than that of such well-established expressions as, "Preceded 
by one or more consonants. 1 '' 

12. INTERJECTIONS. 

? 394. An interjection is a word that expresses an emotion 

only, and is not connected in construction with any other word. 

Ex. — " l 0, stay,' the maiden said, £ and rest.' " "Alas, alas ! fair lues." "Poh ! 
never trouble thy head with such fancies." 

"Few, few, shall part where many meet ! "Ah I few shall part where many meet ! 

The snow shall be their winding-sheet, The snow shall be their winding-sheet, 

And every clod beneath their feet And every clod beneath their feet 

Shall be a soldier's sepulchre !" Shall be a soldier's" sepulchre I" 

The latter stanza is the first as it was afterwards improved. Ah indicates much, 
better the transition from the storm of battle to the wail of woe. See also p. 56. 

? 395. Words from almost every other part of speech, and some- 
times entire phrases, when abruptly uttered to express emotion, may 
become interjections. 

Ex. — Strange ! behold ! what ! why ! indeed ! mercy ! away ! " Why, there, 
there, there /" "Fire and brimstone ! what have you been doing ?" 

? 396. But when it is not the chief purpose of the word to ex- 
press emotion, and when the omitted words are obvious, it may be 
better to parse the word as usual. 

Ex. — "Patience, good lady! comfort, gentle Constance!" — Shakespeare. 
Have patience, good lady I receive comfort, [=be consoled,] gentle Constance. 

? 397. Words used in speaking to the inferior animals, and imi- 
tative words that are uttered with emotion, are generally inter- 
actions. 

Ex. — Haw ! gee ! whoh ! scat ! whist ! 'st, 'st ! " The words are fine, but as to 
the sense — b-a-h /" — Newspaper, " Up comes a man on a sudden, slap J dash / 



INTERJECTIONS. EXERCISES. OBSERVATIONS. 241 

snuffs out the candle, and carries away all the cash." Interjections. " When, 
click ! the string the latch did draw, and, jee ! the door went to the waV — Burns. 
Interjections rather than adverbs. " The lark that tirra-lirra chants." — Shak. Ad- 
verb, showing how. " With a lengthened, load halloo, tu-who, tu-whit, tn^ 
whoo-o-o" — Tennyson. A noun, descriptive of halloo. 

" Go, get you to bed and repose — 
To sit up as late is a scandal ; 
But, ere you have ta'en off your clothes, 
Be sure that you blow out the candle. 
Bi fol de rol tol de rol loV — Horace Smith. 

If such an expression can be parsed at all, it must be parsed as an interjection : 
it may be said to indicate pleasurable emotions. 

? 398. The case of a substantive after an interjection, often de- 
pends on some word understood. 

Ex. — " Ah we/"=Ah ! pity me; or, Ah ! what has happened to me ! or, Ah ! 
wo is to me ! or, Ah! it grieves me. "Ah ! luckless 7"=Ah ! luckless am I! " 0, 
happy «ra/"=0, happy are we! See also p. 112. 

? 399. When an interjection is used, it is generally placed at the 
beginning of the sentence ; but sometimes within the sentence, or 
even at the end ; and sometimes it stands alone. In its syntax, it is 
always independent of other words. 



EXERCISES. 



Examples to be Analyzed and Parsed. 

Ityrse all the words : — 

Alas ! the way is wearisome and long. Adieu, and let me hear from you 
soon again. Gods a ! if I could but paint a dying groan. Ah" me! Hast! 
hush! within the gloom of yonder trees, methought a figure passed. 
Ha, ha, ha b ! well c said. Welcome, "welcome, Lafayette! Out upon 
her* 1 ! thou torturest me, Tubal. 

The Armory. — Ah ! what a sound will rise, how wild and dreary, 

When the Death Angel touches those swift keys ! 

(a.) "Gods" is here used as an interjection, it is abruptly uttered to express an emotion, 
etc. (&.) "Ha, ha, ha!" is an interjection, etc. (c.) That thing was " well said. 1 ' (d.) "Out 
upon herV is an inter jectional phrase, it is abruptly uttered to express an emotion ; it de- 
notes anger, etc. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Some interjections may be uttered by the speaker when alone, as alas ; others 
always have reference to another being, as farewell. Some denote painful emo- 
tions, as pish ; others pleasurable emotions, as hurrah. Some indicate intense 
feeling, as oh; others, slight emotion, as eh. Some, depressed feelings, as alas ; 
others, buoyant emotions, as heigho. Some of them, as (9, ah, are, like laughter 
and weeping, universal expressions for certain feelings : they are found m all 
languages. 

Interjections are most apt to occur when the mind is agitated or suddenly ex- 
cited ; and hence we meet with them most frequently in poems, orations, novels, 
and dramatic writings. They do not imply thought or reflection, like other words ; 
but spring instantaneously from the sensibilities or the will, with but little refer- 
ence, if any, to the intellect ; and hence they are more capricious or less logical 

11 



242 WORDS BELONGING TO TWO 

than other words, and not so fixed in form and signification. Thus, and oh de- 
note a variety of emotions, and are used by some writers indifferently, one for the 
other. Perhaps it would be better to make denote only such emotions as are 
lively and joyful ; and oh, such as are violent and sorrowful. "Peace be with thee, 
our brother." — Whittle)'. M Oh my heart's love ! oh my dear one ! . . . . mercy 1 
mercy ! all is o'er !" — Id. Some writers recommend that should always be pre- 
ferred when an address is made. This is a plain and convenient distinction, but 
it is not always observed. Some of the very common emotions, as wonder, anger, 
or joy, we find expressed interjectionally by everso many different words. In 
fact, interjections being to some extent instinctive sounds, their propriety does not 
always depend on conventional usage, but often somewhat on the peculiar charac- 
ter and condition of the person using them. Frequently, a speaker takes merely 
some word or words of the previous speaker, — those which chiefly excited the sur- 
prise, approbation, or indignation, — and uses them interjectionally. " Consider, 
Sir Charles is upon a visit to his bride. — Bride ! he is litter for the gallows." — 
British Drama. As a general thing, however, interjections should be selected with 
great care, and not used too frequently nor too seldom. When properly used, 
they have sometimes a fine effect ; but it must not be inferred that they alone can 
make discourse sprightly or pathetic. They must grow naturally out of the sub- 
ject or the sentiment. They may, like the overspreading vine, deepen the shade 
of feeling, but they can not supply the place of the tree. When I see them 
standing thick on a page, I am generally reminded of the well-known line of 
Dry den : — 

"He whistled, as he went, for want of thought." 

It is perhaps needless to add that the words of swearing or cursing, which 
rowdies use for grace and emphasis, are interjections as superfluous as ungentle- 
manly. 



WORDS BELONGING TO TWO OR MORE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

400. The part of speech to which a given word belongs, should al- 
ways be determined by the sense in which the word is used. When I 
say, "Our well is deep," well is a noun; "The man is well" well is an 
adjective; "John writes well" well is an adverb: "The waters well from 
the ground," well is a verb. 

All is used — 

As an adjective. "All flowers must fade." 

As a noun. "Not all that glistens, is gold." 

As an adverb. "All [altogether'] listless roamed a shepherd swain." 
As is used — [ u J.s cold as ice" — degree. 

As an adverb. " Skate as I skate" — manner. " It fell as I entered" — time. 

As a conjunction. "As [since'] we all must die, why not be charitable ?" 

As a pronoun. " Let such as hear, take heed." 
Before is used — 

As an adverb. u I came before it rained." 

As a preposition. " He stood before me." 
So are also used above, after, below, ere, etc. 
Both is used — 

As an adjective. " Both trees are in blossom." 

As a conjunction. "She is both handsome and intelligent." 
So are also used either, neither, etc. 



OR MORE PARTS OF SPEECH. 248 

But is used — 

As a conjunction. " Sin may gratify, but repentance stings." 
As a preposition. " "Whence all to [ececep(] him had fled." 
As an adverb. " Words are but [only] leaves." 

For is used — 

As a preposition. " He works for me." 
As a conjunction. " Improve each day, /or life is short." 
So is also used notwithstanding. 

Much is used — 

As an adjective. "Much money is often an evil." 
As an adverb. " He is much better than he was." 
As a noun. " Where much is given, much is required." 
So are also used more, little, less, .etc. 

Since is used — 

As a preposition. "Since last year." 

As an adverb. M It happened long since. 11 

As a conjunction. "Since no one claims it, I will keep it." 

That is used — 

As an adjective. "That book belongs to me." [years." 

Asa conjunction. " Few people know that some crows live a hundred 
As a relative pronoun. " The same flag that [which'] we saw before." 
As a demonstrative pronoun. "The court of England or that [the court] ot 

What is used — [France." 

As an interrogative pronoun. " What ails you ?" 
As a relative pronoun with one case. " I know what ails you." 
As a relative pronoun with two cases. " Take wha,t I offer." 
As an adjective. " What news from Genoa ?" 

As an adverb. " What [partly] by entreaty, and what by threatening, I 
succeeded." What, I think, for somewhat; an unusual and inelegant 
expression. 
As an interjection. "What ! take my money, and my life too ?" 

When doubtful cases occur, a large dictionary may be consulted ; and the teacher may 
sometimes translate the expression literally into some foreign language, and decide ac- 
cordingly. 



GENERAL EXERCISES. 

All the remaining errors in regard to grammar, may be summed up under the 
three following heads: — 

1. Sentences having too many words. 2. Sentences wanting words. 
3. Sentences in any other respect faulty. 

1. Sentences having too many Words. 

No word should be used that is not needed to express the meaning 
correctly, clearly, and forcibly. 

The first qualification required, is a genius. — Pope. Old age will prove 
a joyless and a dreary season, if we arrive at it with an unimproved or 



244 GENERAL EXERCISES. 

with a corrupted mind. These counsels were the dictates of virtue, and 
the dictates of true honor. Avarice and cunning may gain an estate, but 
avarice and cunning can not gain friends. His two sisters were both of 
them handsome. Thought and language act and react upon each other mutu- 
ally. The neck connects the head and trunk together. These savage people 
seemed to have no other element but that of war. The more that you give him, 
the more will he want. They returned back to the city from whence they had 
come forth. If I mistake not, I think I have seen you before. Whenever he 
sees me, he always inquires concerning my health. These are rights that Con- 
gress can not infringe upon. Our debts and our sins are generally greater than 
we think for. — Franklin. Their situation can scarcely be conceived of at the 
present day. The continental army moved down to Charleston in the latter 
end of the year. — Ramsay. These things had great and politic ends in their 
being established. That there snath will not tit this here scythe. 

Such have no other law but the will of their prince. — Kent. How different 
is the conduct of the prosecutors from that of yours ! The passion of anger, the 
passion of envy, and the passion of avarice. And he pursued after the children 
of Israel. Those nice shades by which virtues and vices approach each one 
another. — Murray. The other book is equally as good. All of my time. 
These examples serve to explain both the parts of the rule. He died in less 
than two hours' time. Failing in his first effort, he again repeated it. James 
is tall, but Henry is taller than he. We sought in vain to find the path. He 
succeeded in gaining the universal love of all men. Let us be ready according 
as opportunities present themselves, to make a prudent investment of our means. 
The umbrageous shade of the woody forest. He is temperate, he is disinterested, 
and he is benevolent; he is an ornament to his family, and a credit to his pro- 
fession. Perseverance, in laudable pursuits, will reward all our toils, and will 
produce effects beyond oar calculation. The Incas, or kings of Peru, and ail 

those partaking of, or being within a certain degree of consanguinity to them 

were allowed this privilege. — all those within a certain degree — Being con- 
tent with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it. Having been reared 
in affluence, he could not endure poverty. (Allowable ; though " having been" 
may be omitted.) 

His happy, cheerful temper, remote from discontent, keeps up a kind of day- 
light in his mind, excludes every gloomy prospect, aud rills it with a perpetual 
serenity. |By a multiplicity and variety of words, the thoughts and sentiments are 
not set off and accommodated ; but, like David dressed out and equipped in Saul's 
armor, they are encumbered and oppressed. There is a sweetness and sacred 
holiness in a mother's tears, when they are dropped and tail on the face of her 
dying and expiring babe, which no eye can see, and no one can behold, with a 
heart untouched and unaffected. 

2. Sentences wanting Words. 

No word should be omitted that is needed to express the meaning 
correctly, clearly, and forcibly. 

How shall we, any other way, account for it ? It is not only the duty, but 
interest, of young persons, to be studious and virtuous. Such a law would in- 
volve the good and bad, the innocent and guilty, in the same calamity. It is 
education which almost entirely forms the character, the freedom or slavery, 
the happiness or misery, of the world. Let us avoid the making such amend- 
ments as will be needless. As much propriety must be observed in the dress 
of the old as young. — Addison. Chancery will treat it as a personal matter, so 
far as respects the rights of creditor's. Transitive verbs have an active and pas- 
sive participle. The speculation will produce great gain or loss. — or great 



GENERAL EXERCISES. 245 

loss. The people of this country possess a healthy climate and soil. By these 
happy labors, they who sow and reap, will rejoice together. The court of 
France or England was to be the umpire. He regards his word, but you do 
not. The natural abilities of some men much exceed others. I think his 
works more classical than all our other historians. We were at the fair, and 
saw every thing there. — that was there. We speak that we do know, and 
testify to that we have seen. A servant whose duty was to take care of the 
children. — duty it was — Which road should be taken, was not easy to de- 
termine. This is what best became us to do. — Swift. He met with such a 
reception as those only deserve who are content to take. — Id. 

I do not remember any place where he said so. — he ever said so. It is 
foreign to the present purpose, to more than allude to these facts. You can not 
read too much of the classics, nor too well, —^-nor read it — Simon, son of 
Jonah, lovest thou me more than these ? (Ambiguous.) At that place we 
were neither well paid nor fed. Not a fence or fruit-tree was to be seen. — 
Irving. — nor a — Groves, fields, and meadows, are at any season of the 
year pleasant to look upon, but never so much as in the opening of spring. — 
A ddison. — so much so — I am inclined to adopt your book, and encourage 
others to do likewise. — and to encourage — The scribes made it their pro- 
fession to study and teach the laws of Moses. The sale of one farm or several 
will take place to-day. English verse is regulated rather by the number of 
syllables than of feet. There is no situation so good anywhere. — is not any- 
where else a — How can I distinguish the good from bad ? He was a warrior by 
necessity, if not choice. I believe that when things are at worst they will cer- 
tainly mend ; and when they are at best, they will soon deteriorate. 

His honor, interest, and religion, were all embarked in the undertaking. 
(Repeat his.) I suppose he prefers her, because she possesses more beauty, 
more accomplishments,, and wealth, than the other. By this habitual indeli- 
cacy, the virgins smiled at what they blushed before. — Mushed at — By 
such a course, the progress of the pupil will be greatly facilitated, and many diffi- 
culties avoided. Such were the first settlements in Texas, claiming to be 
civilized, but have now passed away. It was neither the buying lands, nor 
dealing in mules, but extravagance of his wife, that made him a bankrupt. 
Neither my brother nor sister went to the fair. He did not know whether it 
would be best to sell his lot or farm. The hawk was chased by the martins, as 
well as crows. Whether we take the upper or lower route, we can not get 
there in two days. The cholera is said to be in New Orleans and vicinity. 
He is eminent both as a lawyer and politician. Not only the peace of the 
family was broken, but their dignity considerably diminished, by this alliance. 

3. Sentences faulty in Thought or Expression. 

1. The words, the modes of expression, and the arrangement, should 
be the best the language affords for the author's meaning*. 

2. We should always think with clearness, vigor, and a full compre- 
hension of the subject, and speak or write accordingly. 

3. What is said or written, should be sensible and becoming, — or in 
accordance with nature, truth, and reason. 



11 All the parts of a sentence should correspond with one another : 
a regular and dependent construction, throughout, should be carefully 
preserved." — Murray. 

You may as well spend the balance of the evening with us. I do not, how 
ever, imagine that the water-spout would have endangered the loss of the sbip 



246 GENERAL EXERCISES. 

Will you fix the clock so that it will run ? The business will suit any one 
who enjoys bad health. Religion will afford us pleasure, when others forsake 
us. I am willing to pay a hundred or two dollars. The more I see of hi3 
conduct, I like him better. Form your measures with prudence, but all anxiety 
about the issue divest yourself of. Though virtue borrows no assistance from, 
yet it may be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune. The Greeks, fear- 
ing to be surrounded on all sides, wheeled about and halted, with the river on 
their backs. — Goldsmith. Replevin is when suit is brought to recover property 
in the possession of another. 1 The mill stood between the old and new bridges. 
He wrote the recommendations both of the first and last editions. The man- 
ner of these authors' writing books so fast, 1 will now explain. I can not find 
one of my books. b We have not the least right to your protection. I want 
to see what he wants. When if precedes a verb, it is in the subjunctive mood. 
Porter, however, fired some three or four times -at Jones, before he fell. The 
Romans stipulated with the Carthaginians, to furnish them with ships for trans- 
port and war. — Arbuthnot. Solomon, the son of David, who built tne temple 
of Jerusalem, was the richest monarch that ever reigned over the Jewish 
people. 

He has little regard for your and my friend's welfare. White sheep are 
much more common than black. The heads of a panther and a cat are similar 
in shape. He is not rich, c and incompetent for business. The furniture is 
more showy than useful ; but that, I suppose, was not taken into considera- 
tion^ He came on the boat, which his friends expected. e He sent me 
the books, which he had promised/ The magistrate punished him for 
some misdemeanor, which was approved.^ Be honest, for it certainly is 
the best policy. h He was thought to be very polite, which indeed he was 
to those of whom he expected favors. 1 He is always still and grave, which 
makes him to be thought wisej I was thinking qf the best place for an 
offiee. k This can be made an objection against one government as well as an- 
other. The valley of the Amazon is perhaps as large as the Mississippi; but 
more of it is overflown. I have that that will keep you. There is not a harder 
part in human nature, than becoming wealth and greatness. This letter being 
too long for the present paper, I intend to print it by itself. It mattered little 
what the nature of the task was ; whether it were organizing an opposition to a 
political faction, or a troop of cavalry to resist invasion. — Prescott 

The acceptance must also be absolute, and not in any respect differing from 
the bill. A participle is a word derived from a verb, and which denotes action, 
or a state of being. There is no vice which mankind carry to such wild ex- 
tremes as that of avarice. It had been better for us to serve the Egyptians, than that 
we should die in the wilderness. 1 — Bible. This victory seemed to be like a res- 
urrection from the dead, to the Eastern States. John Rutledge and John Jay 
were nearly of an age. The people had not the wherewith to pay their debts. 
The supplying an army by contractors, Gen. Jackson had objected to, as highly ob- 
jectionable. Here it is rare for three fair days to follow each other. The pre- 
tenders to polish and refine the English language, have chiefly multiplied abuses 
and absurdities. God heapeth favors on his servants, ever liberal and faithful. 
The work, in its full extent, being now afflicted with an asthma, and finding the 
powers of life gradually declining, he had no longer courage to undertake. — 
Johnson. Dryden makes a very handsome observation on Ovid's writing a let- 
ter from Dido to JEneas, in the following words. The perplexity that attends 

a is a mode of trial for the recovery of b even one of, or, can find all but one ; 

c nor is he competent, 07% and he is incompetent 

d but its utility, I spppose, was not taken into consideration «■' according to the expectation 

i as he had promised to do, or, according to promise s and the punishment 

h for honesty is 1 and indeed he was so to those j and therefore lie is thought 

k what place would be best » than to die in 



GENERAL EXERCISES. 247 

a multiplicity of criticisms by various hands, many of which are sure to be futile, 
many of them ill-founded, and some of them contradictory to others, is incon- 
ceivable. m 

It is an acknowledged fact by some of our most experienced teachers, &c. B 
I never heard mentioned that fellow's being a poet before. The long, undis- 
turbed possession implies the title to be good.P The hyena, they pretend, to 
have been brought from Abyssinia. By analyzing is meant the resolving of 
a sentence into its elements. The book is meant to be adapted to the capacity 
of children. (A clumsy mode of expression; change the sentence.) The 
hosts stood still. (Want of euphony.) We were exceedingly kindly treated. 
They died and fought for liberty. (Unnatural arrangement.) Intemperance 
produces death, misery, and want. The merciful are blessed, for they shall ob- 
tain mercy. The family treated me in the same way that they treat their own 
sons.q What is the reason that you are here yet ? r By agitating and dis- 
cussion, the truth is elicited. Some governments forfeit the property of out- 
laws. When there is no heir, the estate of course forfeits to the state. 8 I 
wish to cultivate a farther acquaintance with you. Thursday is set aside for 
thanksgiving day.* And this is it men mean by distributive justice, and is 
properly termed equity." It was an unsuccessful undertaking, which, although 
it has failed, is no objection to an enterprise so well concerted. And lie entered 
into a certain man's house named Justus, one that worshiped God. At the 
same time, there are some defects tvhich must be acknowledged, in his Odyssey. 
— Blair. They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven from, the house. 
As the denominator is greater, the value must be less. 

Between grammar, logic, and rhetoric, there exists a close and happy con- 
nection ; which reigns through all science, and extends to all the powers of elo 
quence. T — Mohan. (Observe that ivhich here can not properly represent the 
identical connection mentioned before it.) jSTo other employment beside a book- 
seller suited his inclinations. There is no talent so useful toward rising in the 
world, or which puts men more out of the reach of fortune, than that quality 
generally possessed by the dullest sort of people, and is, in common language, 
called discretion. w Many would gladly exchange riches and honors for that 
more quiet and humbler station which you are now dissatisfied with. As the 
guilt of an officer will be greater than that of a common servant, if he prove 
negligent ; so the reward of his fidelity will prove proportionably greater. At 
first, he was received with great favorableness, but his stupidness soon appeared. 
The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one another. An elo- 
quent speaker may give more, but not more convincing arguments, than this 
plain man offered. I favored him, because in looks he favored my brother. 

The wealthy merchant and the journeyman tradesman were seen marching 
side by side, and often exchanged the contents of their canteens with each other. x 
— Hist of U. S. In seeking to dig up one fact, it is incredible the number of facts 
I unearthed. — Irving. The asylum was founded upwards of two centuries since, 
on an old monastic establishment. — Id. By this system, money became plenty 
— such as it was. — Id. A letter written by an inhabitant of that place, speaks 
of the sudden apparition of the enemy. — Irving } s Washington. The blunder 
was detected on an order being issued for a new supply of cartridges.? — Id. 
So they sat drinking, and smoking, and telling stories, and singing Dutch and 
Irish songs, without understanding a word each other said. — Irving. I know 

"i of which many n a fact acknowledged ° heard that fellow mentioned 

as being a poet, or, heard it mentioned that that fellow is P that the title is good 

q me as they r Why are you s escheats * set apart u is what 

men mean .... and what v Grammar have and such a connection reigns, indeed 

through w which is generally .... and which is * shared the contents 

. when an order was issued. 



248 GENERAL EXERCISE3. 

that all words which are signs of complex ideas furnish matter of mistake and 
cavil. — Locke. No nation can or have any right to look for respect abroad as 
being just, that is not first honest at home, — Swift. Which when Beelzebub 
perceived, than whom none higher sat. (An uncouth knarl; rather say, "than 
who" or, " than he" or, " none higher sat than he") 

I beg the favor of your acceptance of a copy of a view of the manufactories of the 
West Riding of the county of York. When one gives one's self the liberty to 
range and run over in one's thoughts the different geniuses of men which one 
meets in the world, one can not but observe, that most of the indirection and 
artifice, which is used among men, does not proceed so much from a degeneracy 
in nature, as an affectation of appearing men of consequence by such practices. 2 
■ — British Essayists. (Tot) many ones ; there are also other faults.) The awful 
distance which we bear towards her in all our thoughts of her, and that cheerful 
familiarity with which we approach her, are certain instances of her being the 
truest object of love of any of her sex. — lb. Never delay till to-morrow, (for 
to-morrow is not yours; and, though you should live to enjoy it, you must not 
overload it with a burden not its own,) what reason and conscience tell you 
ought to be performed to-day. (Take out the parenthesis, and put it after the 
rest of the sentence, in a separate, distinct sentence.) The discontented man 
(as his spleen irritates and sours his temper, and leads him to discharge his venom 
on all with whom he stands connected) is never without a great share of ma- 
lignity. 

Last Saturday a gang of highwaymen broke into an empty house, and strip- 
ped it of all its furniture. — Newspaper. It is always objectionable to use the 
same word too often. In familiar conversation we frequently make use of ellip- 
sis.** (To make use of a nonentity, or of the absence of a thing, is absurd.) A 
vest which from^a naked Pict his grandsire had won. When a person is 
spoken to, he is of the second person. bb The use of which accents [Greek and 
Roman] we have now entirely lost. cc — Blair. (We never had them to lose.) 
Our modern pronunciation must have appeared to them [the Greeks and Romans] 
a lifeless monotony. dd — Id. (They never heard it.) To be convicted of bribery, 
was then a crime altogether unpardonable. ee Orthography means word-mak- 
ing, or spelling/ f — Smith's Grammar. Abercrombie had still nearly four times 
the number of the enemy .s* — Irving. The Latin tongue, in its purity, never 
was in this country. 11 h The notions of Lord Sunderland were always good; 
but he was a man of extravagant habits. 

The following erroneous sentences, which are taken from Whatley's Logic, 
belong to the class called fallacies. Most fallacies arise because the same word 
has often several different meanings, or because it may be applied to objects 
of the same general class, with greater or less comprehensiveness. 

None but whites are civilized : the ancient Germans were whites : therefore 
they were civilized. (Observe here that the whites referred to in the second 
proposition are none of the whites referred to in the first proposition.) Nothing 
is heavier than platina : feathers are heavier than nothing : therefore feathers 
are heavier than platina. (My dog has more legs than no dog : no dog has 
twelve legs : therefore my dog has more than twelve legs.) All cold is ex- 
pelled by heat : this person's disorder is a cold : therefore it is to be expelled 
by heat. He who is most hungry, eats most : he who eats least, is most hungry : 
therefore he who eats least, eats most. Whatever body is in motion, must move 
either in the place where it is, or in a place where it is not : neither of these 
is possible : therefore there is no such thing as motion. 

z When a person, &c. »a ellipses are frequently allowed bb When a 

person is spoken to, the noun or pronoun used for addressing him is «= is ... . 

lost dJ would have appeared ee Bribery was ff means, literally, 

correct writing gig four times as many men hn was never spoken, in its purity, in. 



GENERAL EXERCISES. 249 

Miscellaneous Examples to be Corrected. 

Honor or reputation are dearer than. life. — Bouvier. 

Mr. Burke was offered a very important and lucrative office. — Goodrich. 

The protest laid quietly on the table. — Irving. 

To this, in a great measure, has been attributed the successes of the Moslems. 
—Id. 

You have chose the worse. — Id. 

The greater part of the forces were retired into winter-quarters. — Id. 

Washington was given the command of a divisiou partly composed of his own 
men. — Id. 

She doubted whether this were not all delusion, and whether she was not 
still in the palace. — Id. 

The Indian chief and his son, being a small distance from the line of march, 
was surrounded and taken. — Id. 

Where will we find such merry groups now-a-days ? — Id. 

Sir Walter speaks to every one as if they were his blood relations. — Id. 

The right wing was composed" of Glover's, Mason's, and Patterson's regi- 
ments. — Id. 

Burgoyne was stated as being arrived at Quebec to command the forces in an 
invasion from Canada. — Id. 

Were Aristotle or Plato to come among us, they would find no contrast more 
complete than between the workshops of their Athens and those of New York. 
■ — Bancroft. 

On rather a narrow strip of land. — K Everett. 

We had fortunately engaged rooms at the only decent inn at Melrose, and 
after supper went out at nine o'clock to see the abbey. — Id. 

To the antiquary and artist, these columns are a source of inexhaustible ob- 
servations and designs. — Byron. 

That fortune, fame, power, life, hath named themselves a star. — Id. 

He knew not what it was to die. — Id. 
And goodly sons grew by his side, 
But none so lovely and so brave 
As him who withered in the grave. — Id. 

Sir Henry Wotton used to say that critics were like brushers of noblemen's 
clothes. — Baco n. 

Let them the state adorn, and he defend. — Cowley. 

A steed comes at morning ; no rider is there, 

But its bridle is red with the sign of despair. — Campbell. 

His curse be on him. He who knoweth where 

The lightnings hide. — Mrs. Sigourney. 

My robe, and my integrity to Heaven, is all I now dare call my own. — 
Shakespeare. 

A silk dress or a flowered bonnet were then great rarities. — History of Penn- 



Thomas Penn, soon after his arrival, aided by seven special commissioners, 
entered upon the adjustment of the southern boundary, and running the line be- 
t ween the proprietaries and Lord Baltimore. — lb. (Recast the sentence.) 

Mr. Dana asked Mr. G-ore's leave to say a few words, which he did ; after 
which he retired from the Convention. — EllioVs Debates. 

What is seventy-five cents, or even a dollar, an acre ? — lb. 

The miller was bound to have returned the flour. — Kent. 

The true rule was stated to be that the seller was liable to an action of deceit, 
if he fraudulently misrepresent the thing sold. — Id. 

11* 



250 GENERAL EXERCISES. 

To inquire whether or no the party be an idiot or lunatic. — Mo. Statutes. 
The constable shall execute such jury summons fairly and impartially, and 
shall not summon any person whom he has reason to believe is biased or prej- 
udiced for or against either of the parties. — lb. 

It is a full two hours to dinner. — Harper's Magazine. 
The two electric fluids neutralized each others' effects. — lb. 
My suspicions were being more and more confirmed every minute. — lb. 
Now* then, what should you think water was composed of? — lb. 
Of the other two there exists only the first book, and the plan of the 
second. — lb. 

It is a little child of two years old. — lb. 
He knew not which to most admire. — lb. 
We have other two remarks to offer. — lb. 

Barnabas and his brother became, as companions in crime usually do, sus- 
picious of one another. — lb. 

In England, every one is free as soon as they touch the land. — lb. 

There was the house and out-buildings, all of an unfashionable kind. — lb. 

It was I who destroyed Ehrenberg's theory that the volvox globator was an 
animal. — Atlantic Monthly. 

Which phrase, if it mean anything, means paper money. — lb. 

Some virtues are only seen in adversity. — Eclectic Magazine. 

I shall be happy always to see my friends. — lb. 

He not only watched a good opportunity to liberate his prisoner, but swam 
with him across the river on his back. — Religious Memoirs. 

The queen bore all her duties stoutly, as she expected others to bear 
them. — Hist, of Netherlands. 

Each occupied their several premises, and farmed their own land. — Jefferson. 

New York, with several posts in the neighborhood, were in possession of the 
enemy. — Id. 

My residence is at present at his lordship's, where I might, was my heart dis- 
engaged, pass my time very agreeably, as there is a very amiable young lady 
lives at the same house. — Washington's Letters. 

We have much to say on the subject of this Life, and will often find ourselves 
to dissent from the opinions of the biographer. — Macaulay. 

If we examine with minuteness the falling snow, we will observe that each 
flake consists of a number of exceedingly delicate particles of ice. — E. Sargent. 

But we will fail of our conviction, if we have not made it evident, &c. — Critique 
on Worcester. 

A squirrel can climb a tree quicker than a boy. — Webster. 

Parents are of all other people the very worst judges of their children's merits ; 
for what they reckon such, is seldom any thing else but a repetition of their own 
faults. — Addison. 

The having a grammar of our mother-tongue first taught, would facilitate our 
youths learning their Latin and Greek grammars. — Id. 

We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images 
which we have received, into all the varieties of picture and vision. — Id. 

Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, 
the things which God hath prepared for them that love him. — Murray's Gram. 

By intercourse with wise and experienced persons, who know the world, we 
may improve and rub off the rust of a private education. — lb. 

Prepositions, you recollect, connect words, as well as conjunctions; how, then, 
can you tell the one from the other ? — Smith. 

Precept 1. Avoid low and provincial expressions. Precept 8. Observe 
the natural order of things or events, and do not put the cart before the 
horse. — Goold Brown. 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 251 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

In speaking or writing, we should avoid redundancy, deficiency, tautology, 
ambiguity, obscurity, affectation, pedantry, vulgarity, silliness, falseness, absurdity, 
nonsense, self-contradiction, and any phraseology that is not the best the lan- 
guage affords. 

In general, the fewer the words we use to express our meaning, the better. 
Many of the most esteemed and durable paragraphs in our literature, are such 
as tell much in very few words. It is easy to multiply words ; but it is dis- 
agreeable to be obliged to read through a large volume, to get what might have 
been told us as well in a small pamphlet. 

To the abundant or excessive use of words, we commonly apply the terms 
verbosity, pleonasm, redundancy, and tautology. Verbosity implies the use of 
circuitous expressions, or it is the telling of things in a round-about way : it is 
opposed to sententiousness or conciseness. " They who first settled in the country, 
made choice of the most desirable lands;" better, " The first settlers took the 
best lands." Pleonasm is the use of some word or expression that is not es- 
sential, but still adds to the vigor of the sentence; as, "I saw it with my own 
eyes;" "Busk ye, busk ye, my bonny, bonny bride;" " One of the few, the im- 
mortal names, that were not born to die." Redundancy is a needless repetition of 
words, or a needless fullness of expression ; as, " AYe both of us went on the same 
day, and, besides, moreover, we both of us returned back on the same day;" cor- 
rected, "Both of us went and returned the same day." Tautology is the telling 
of the same thing, or nearly the same thing, again and again, in other ways. 
" The dawn is overcast, the morning lowers, and heavily in clouds brings on the 
day." — Addison, as quoted and criticised by Johnson. "Let observation with ex- 
tensive view, survey mankind from China to Peru." — Johnson himself. As much 
as to say, "Let observation, with extensive observation, observe mankind from 
China to Peru. Law and lawyers abound in tautology and redundancy, and 
sometimes in needless technical terms. 

It is generally much easier to find other ways of telling the same thing, than 
to add more new thoughts to what is already said ; hence it very often happens, 
that persons, in order to fill up the time or paper, add new words and expression? 
without adding new ideas: they string together synonymous terms and ex- 
pressions, just as if they meant to repeat what they have learned in some dic- 
tionary. It is said that Daniel Webster resolved — " Never to use a word that 
does not add some new idea, or modify some idea already expressed." Those 
words may in general be omitted, which are readily inferred, by the hearer or 
reader, from the words that are given ; and those thoughts may be left unex- 
pressed, which are readily inferred from the thoughts that are expressed. The 
chief faults to be guarded against in seeking for brevity of expression, are ob- 
scurity and deficiency ; which frequently arise from the use of very general and 
comprehensive terms, and from the omission of words. The allowable or elegant 
omission of words is termed ellipsis. Dialogue, and discourse uttered under the 
influence of great excitement, are most frequently elliptical. 

Coleridge, to give his notion of a perfect style, once said that he had lately 
read, of Southey's prose, several pages so well written that nothing in them 
presented itself to his mind except the author's meaning, — that no word, no 
mode of expression, and no jar in the train of thought, diverted or drew his at- 
tention. A perfect style, then, is so transparent a medium for the thought as to 
become itself invisible, — a train of words presenting the meaning so well and im- 
pressively that it passes by itself unobserved. It has been truly said, "Nature's 
chief masterpiece is writing-well." A person's skill in style depends chiefly on 
his knowledge, judgment, and taste, and his practice in composition. His dis- 
course should be, throughout, one entire, consistent, congruous, and perfect pic- 
ture of all that is pertinent to the subject, his aim, and the reader's capacity ; 



252 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

presenting neither too much nor too little. Nothing important should be left 
cut, and nothing useless should be allowed to come in. In short, the piece 
should be such that no word, phrase, clause, sentence, or paragraph, can be 
omitted, inserted, transposed, or changed, without injuring the excellence of the 
whole. The natural order of things sboul I be observed, or such an order as will 
make the greatest impression. If thoughtful of what we are saying, we would 
hardly say, "He dressed and washed himself;" "He tumbled, head over heels, 
into the river;" " He will kill, steal, cheat, and lie, for gold." Things that have 
no connection, should not be jumbled together; as, "I am well, and hope you 
have got my last letter." We should not be so flighty as to say something on 
one topic, then pass to another topic, then come again to the first topic : nor should 
we, in a subsequent part of the discourse, tell, as if we had not told, what we 
have already told ; nor make any statement inconsistent with some other state- 
ment at some distance before it. 

The transition from one topic to another should be natural and easy. Not 
so many different subjects should be introduced into one sentence as will make 
it confused. The most important parts should be placed where they will make 
the strongest impression. Modifying parts should be so placed or distributed as 
to encumber the discourse as little as possible, and to show clearly and readily 
what they are intended to modify. The longer and more important parts of a 
sentence should generally follow the shorter and less important parts. To con- 
clude a sentence with an insignificant word or phrase, is always inelegant. 

When a serial structure has been adopted, it is generally disagreeable to dis- 
continue or to change it, before the entire enumeration is made. Parts con- 
trasted or emphatically distinguished, should generally be expressed with full- 
ness. "It is not by indolence, but by diligence, that you will succeed." 
" Spring borrowed a new charm from its undulating grounds, its luxuriant wood- 
lands, its sportive streams, its vocal birds, and its blushing flowers." Parts con- 
nected by correlative words, and parts implying contrast or comparison, must 
generally be expressed so nearly alike as possible. Observe the elegance of ar- 
rangement and expresssion in the following sentence : " Homer hurries us with 
a commanding impetuosity; Yirgil leads us with an attractive majesty: Homer 
scatters with a generous profusion; Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence." 
— Pope. 

Short sentences and long ones should be properly intermixed. Many short 
sentences, in succession, are apt to have a disagreeable hitching or jerking effect ; 
and long-winded sentences also displease, by becoming tiresome or tedious. Most 
of the best modern writers rather prefer short sentences and simple structure, to 
long and complicated sentences. Long and involved sentences should generally 
be avoided, by expressing the same meaning in two or more shorter sentences. 
A long parenthesis within a sentence is generally better expressed by taking it 
out, and putting it after or before the other part, as a distinct sentence. It is 
sometimes better to recast a disagreeable sentence altogether ; or to dismiss it, 
and to express the meaning in some other way. Mr. Bancroft says, in his His- 
tory, " Private interest, directed to the culture of a valuable staple, was more 
productive than the patronage of England; and tobacco enriched Virginia." 
Here the tobacco clause is hitched on very abruptly and awkwardly ; just as if the 
author did not know what to do with it. Perhaps Macaulay would have said : 
" Private interest, directed to the culture of a valuable staple, was more pro- 
ductive than the patronage of England. The Virginians turned their attention 
to tobacco ; and tobacco enriched them." 

In selecting words, or modes of expression, the question is not whether they 
are perfectly adapted to express the meaning, but whether they are the best the 
language affords for the meaning ; if they are, then they are proper. The pref- 
erence should, in general, be given to those words and expressions which are 
most popular, or understood by the greatest number of people : and whose 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 253 

fundamental meaning, when they are analyzed, or traced to their etymology, ac- 
cords best with the sense in which we mean to use them. 

Our little words of one or two syllables, and our pithy idioms, are generally 
the best. A great master of language says : " Saxon words can not be used too 
frequently. They abridge and condense, and smack of life and experience, and 
form the nerve and sinew of the best writings of the day ; while the Latin is the 
fat. The Saxon puts small and convenient handles to things, handles that are 
easy to grasp ; while your ponderous Johnsonian phraseology extends and ex- 
aggerates, and never peels the chaff from the wheat." Dr. Johnson said, " The 
Rehearsal has not life enough to keep it sweet;" but immediately recollecting 
himself he added, " It possesses not sufficient vitality to preserve it from putre- 
faction." He defines net-work so that no lady can fail to have a clearer idea of 
it than she ever had before : " Any thing reticulated or decussated, with inter- 
stices at equal distances between the intersections." 

We should never use foreign words, expressions, or idioms, when we have 
native ones that will express the meaning as well. Such a use of languages is 
nonsensical, affected, and pedantic. u Is Lizzie on the carpet adhuc ? Are things 
still in statu quo ? I shall put out in a few days, and go quo animus fert ; — you 
know where." — From a Letter. " Tres humble serviteur. Et comment sa porte, 
Mademoiselle ? Why you look divinely. But, mon enfant, they have dressed 
you out most diabolically. Why, what a coiffure must you have ! and, oh mon 
Dieu ! a total absence of rouge. But perhaps you are out." — Foote : Englishman 
returned from Paris. 

The following paragraph is composed in the French idiom: "I no sooner 
found myself here than I visited my new apartments, which are composed of 
five pieces; the small room, which gives upon the garden, is practised through 
the great one, and there is no other issue. As I was exceeded with fatigue, I 
no sooner made my toilette than I let myself fall upon a bed of repose, where 
sleep came to surprise me." 

It is not always easy to determine what is genuine English idiom. Our lan- 
guage, being formed from several others, has idioms from them all. To what 
extent foreign idioms may be allowed in our poetry, it is not easy to determine. 
I incline to think, that in the whole of our poetry — English, Welsh, Scotch, 
Irish, and American — may be found all the naturally intelligible idioms from all 
the foreign languages that our writers ever studied. 

It is possible to make discourse out of words merely ; that is, without having 
vivid ideas of things themselves. Words are often strung together gram- 
matically, and with just enough sense or propriety to avoid absurdity. Such 
emptiness of expression may be termed nonsense. It comes from dull minds, or 
from indolent or vacant states of the mind. Thus it happened that a certain 
Spanish poet could not tell what his own sonnet meant, and thus have been 
produced hundreds of unmeaning paragraphs in our literature. Hence we can 
not be too careful, or use too great, efforts, in getting at clear and distinct ideas. 
Indeed, vivid, statuesque ideas are the greatest charm, or that which, above all 
things else, enchains the hearer or reader. Truth — truth worth learning and 
remembering, is the first quality ; and the next is beauty. 

A common species of nonsense and pedantry is the grandiloquent use of 
learned language, when the speaker or writer has nothing to say, or does not 
himself comprehend, or only in a shadowy way, what he pretends to explain or 
prove to others. 

Ex. — " The thinkable, even when compelled by analysis to make the nearest 
approach that is possible to a negation of intelligibility, thus implies phenom- 
ena objectified by thought, and conceived to exist in space and time." ("If 
thou hast any tidings," says Falstaff to Pistol, "prithee, deliver them like a man 
of this world.") 

Language of this kind is mostly found in spiritual or transcendental writers 



254 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

and speakers; especially divines and metaphysicians. In fact, we are all liable 
to nse language thus, whenever we attempt to draw forth into light what is 
beyond the reach of the limited faculties of the soul. 

Another species of pedantry or affectation is the excessive or needless use or 
technical language. " Lay in your oars, my lads ; step the short mast — close- 
reef the storm-lug, and beach the galley under canvas." — From a Novel. None 
but a seaman knows what is meant here. Most people are too indolent to search 
out the meanings of the words they do not understand, nor is it always con- 
venient to do so. In writing a scientific treatise, or in addressing scientific per- 
sons, technical language may sometimes be necessary or most appropriate. 

Another species of pedantry, or rather, of affectation, is the ridiculous aping, 
in fine or pompous language, of those people who are deemed worthy of 
imitation. 

Ex. — "Administer your proposition; you will have my concurrence, sir, in 
any thing that does not derogate from the regulations of conduct ; for it would 
be most preposterous in one of my character to deviate from the strictest atten- 
tion. Nor would there, Sir Gregory, did circumstances concur as you insinuate, 
be so absolute a certitude, that I, who have rejected so many matches, should 
instantaneously succumb. And had not Penelope Trifle framed irrefragable res- 
olutions, she need not so long have retained her family name." — Foote, ridi- 
culing an old maid. 

Much akin to the foregoing fault is silliness, which also should be carefully 
avoided. 

A popular book on physic, thus describes the process of eating : — 

" Prehension, or the taking of food into the mouth, is performed mainly by 
the hand, assisted by the lips and cheeks, as well as the anterior teeth and the 
tongue. The contact of the solid food with the interior of the mouth, excites 
the act of mastication, performed by alternating contractions of the muscles 
which pull the lower jaw upward, downward, backward, forward, and laterally, 
by acting on the bone in which they are implanted." 

To defer the main subject in order to define the meaning of words, borders 
frequently upon silliness ; and so does most of the unbecomingly florid or figura- 
tive language. These two faults may be termed the sophomoric style, as being 
naturally and generally found in the half-green and half-ripe age of college sopho- 
mores. Similar to silliness of expression is another fault, which I have often 
noticed, <and which sometimes affects whole communities as well as individuals. 
It is the hackneyed use of some particular word, phrase, or sentence. 

Some people are always guessing; some, reckoning ; some, calculating; and 
some, 'sposing : some find everything sweet; some, first-rate; some, mighty 
good ; some, mighty bad ; and others have all things in the superlative degree : 
some always respond with a "That's so," " Did you ever!" "Yes?" "Well, to 
be sure !" or, "That's a fact." A certain politician was never known to make a 
speech without having "our great and glorious Union" in it. Some speeches 
are flooded with "my fellow-citizens." In England, whatever pleases, is " nice; 11 
in the United States, "fine." Poets often exhibit this fault in their use of 
rhymes. In fact, the fault seems to be a natural infirmity of the human mind, 
whenever it becomes morbid or indolent, or when it comes to a stand in the 
growth of its knowledge. We are often annoyed by remembered scraps buzzing 
in the head like gadflies, especially if they find there something of a Pegasus. 

Low, vulgar, or provincial expressions should be avoided. Such are, " To 
get into a scrape," " To play the 'possum," " To acknowledge the corn," 
"To cut shines," "To bark up the wrong tree," "To get the hang of," "To 
have a fair shake at," and many others, which we decline to quote for fear 
the learner should catch them. Some of these low yet current expressions are 
so well founded and so energetic that they should rather be regarded as gold 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 255 

in bullion, that has not yet received the stamp ; and there are many of them 
which our people, especially N the politicians, could hardly spare. 

A departure from grammatical accuracy, or from elegance, is sometimes al- 
lowed, in order to represent more faithfully the language or character of another. 
"Child. Once, when I sat upon her lap, I felt a beating at her side; and she 
told me 'twas her heart that beat, and bade me feel for mine, and they both beat 
alike, only mine beat the quickest And I feel my heart beating yet — but hers 
lean not feel!" Had the author here said " more quickly," he would have 
shown at once, not the pathetic prattle of the child over its dead mother, but 
his own counterfeiting, and thus spoiled the dramatic effect. Hence, too, 
Cowper makes Mrs. G-ilpin say: "So you must ride on horseback after we." 
To this head may also be referred the imitations of brogues and dialects. 

All uncouth, harsh, antiquated, obsolete, unauthorized, or new-fangled terms 
should generally be avoided, unless they are meant to be imitative, or are pecu- 
liarly appropriate and expressive. 

Ignorant people often pervert words, or confound words that resemble in 
sound, or imagine that words belong to the language that are not in it, or not 
authorized ; as, critter for creature ; disgracious for ungracious ; prehaps for per- 
haps ; contagious for contiguous. "He was much effected by the operation." 
"They got out a capeas horpus." A certain man "meant to run a revenue up 
to his house, build a pizarro in front, a portorico behind, a conservatory on top, 
and treat his friends in the most hospital manner." 

The same word or the same mode of expression should not be so often 
used as to indicate poverty of language ; nor in so many different senses as 
to render the meaning doubtful, or disappoint disagreeably the expectation of 
the reader. 

When there are several synonymous words or expressions, great care should 
be taken to select the most appropriate one. "An idle boy is unwilling to be 
employed :" say rather, "A lazy boy," &c. Idle means not doing, or not effecting 
much ; lazy means unwilling to do. "The proud pile is of great magnitude, and 
soars grandly up with its numerous towers and splendid terraces." — Travels in 
Europe. I believe soars is applied only to what leaves its support ; therefore it 
can not be applied to an edifice : say, " rises" If our language had no word 
nearer to the meaning than soars, then soars would be proper. In order to dis- 
criminate words, it may be useful to the student to keep in mind the three fol- 
lowing observations : — 

1. Learn the principles of language, or of synonymy, and endeavor to apply 
them judiciously. For example: Some words are more comprehensive or less 
specific than others. Every river is a stream, but not every stream is a, river. 
Some words are active, and others are passive. Force affects, strength sustains ; 
fickle men waver, prices fluctuate ; reasonable men exercise reason, rational men 
have reason. Some words are positive, and others are negative. A fault is 
something positively bad; a defect is a mere want of something needed. Some 
words differ in degree; as, damp, moist, wet; delicacy, dainty. Some words 
relate more directly to nature ; others, to art. Gentleness may be the gift of 
nature, but iameness is the result of art. Some words are rather spiritual or 
heavenly ; others, worldly or material : soul, mind ; spirit, vigor ; delightful, deli- 
cious. Some words rather have reference to something inward ; and others, to 
something outward ; as, dignity, decorum. Some words are the names of things 
themselves; others are but the names of the signs of things; as, idea, word. 

2. Consider what distinctions the differences in things require ; look through 
your knowledge, look into the world around you — into other men's knowledge 
and practice, and into the relations of things, and discriminate accordingly. For 
example : Genius is rather inward, creative, and angelic ; talent, outward, prac- 
tical, and worldly. Genius disdains and defies imitation ; talent is often the re- 
sult of imitation in respect to every thing that may contribute to the desired 



256 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

excellence. Genius has quick and strong sympathies, and is sometimes given to 
re very and vision ; talent is cool and wise, seldom losing sight of " common 
sense." Genius is born for a particular pursuit, in which it surpasses; talent is 
versatile, and may make a respectable figure at almost any thing. To genius 
are due about all the achievements that distinguish enlightened from savage life ; 
talent has merely preserved, polished, and enjoyed the productions of genius, but 
created nothing. Men of talent are but time-servers : they usually carry on the 
world, and get the best of it while they are in it ; but their glory generally ends 
at the grave. Men of genius sometimes starve for want of bread ; though they 
are generally appreciated and honored by posterity. 

Discriminate words as you find them used in sentences* written by good 
authors. If I say, " When the disciples saw the Savior arisen on the morning 
of the resurrection, they gazed upon him with astonishment and rapture;" "I 
have often seen impudent fellows station themselves at the doors of churches, 
and stare at the women;" you can easily see the difference between gaze and 
stare. 

Every word has a peculiar set of associations belonging to it ; and in the 
proper discrimination of words with reference to their secondary ideas, lie chiefly 
the precision and elegance of language. 

We should rather choose the words and expressions already in common use, 
and employ them in their ordinary signification, than coin new words or ex- 
pressions, or use old ones in a peculiar sense ; for, if we were at liberty in these 
respects, soon every man's writings would need a glossary. Ex. — " We may 
recognize this construction by the name of the accusative and infinitive con- 
tracted objective accessory." — Mulligan. 

Another fault is ambiguity, which arises chiefly from the several different 
meanings which some words have, from the position of words, and from the 
omission of words. "He is mad." " The governor had several fast friends in 
the Territory." — Burnet's Northwest Territory. What sort of friends does he 
mean? a firm friends," I suppose. "The rising tomb a lofty column bore." 
Which bore the other ? " While the sun was gently sinking below the horizon 
in the west, with much beauty, the bright moon rose serenely above it in 
the east." 

Rhymes, poetical words, and poetic structure should be avoided in prose: — 

Ex. — " He pulled out his purse to reimburse the unfortunate man." " The 
morn was cloudy and darksome, but the eve was serenely beautiful." 

" The gallant warrior starts from soft repose, from golden visions and volup- 
tuous ease ; where, in the dulcet piping time of peace, he sought sweet solace 
after all his toils. No more in beauty's siren lap reclined, he weaves fair gar- 
lands for his lady's brows; no more entwines with flowers his shining sword, 
nor through the livelong lazy summer's day chants forth his love-sick soul in 
madrigals. To manhood roused, he spurns the amorous flute; doffs from hia 
brawny back the robes of peace, and clothes his pampered limbs in panoply of 
steel. O'er his dark brow where late the myrtle waved, where wanton roses 
breathed enervate love, he rears the beaming casque and nodding plume; 
grasps the bright shield and shakes the ponderous lance ; or mounts, with eager 
pride, his fiery steed, and burns for deeds of glorious chivalry."-Irving : Knicker* 
bocker. Possibly, the foregoing was meant in ridicule of the turgid or bombastic 
style. The golden-mouthed author, however, not unfrequently transgresses, by 
passing into poetic grounds. 

In accordance with Dr. Blair's system of rhetoric, we may briefly sum up the 
most important qualities of style, in the six following terms : purity, propriety, 
and precision, chiefly in regard to words and phrases; and perspicuity, unity, 
and strength, in regard, to sentences. He who writes with purity, avoids ali 
phraseology that is foreign, uncouth, or ill-derived ; he who writes with propriety, 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 257 

selects the most appropriate, the very best expressions, and generally displays 
sound judgment and good taste , he who writes with precision, is careful to 
state exactly what he means — all that he means or that is necessary, and nothing 
more; he who writes with perspicuity, aims to present his meaning so clearly 
and obviously that no one can fail to understand him at once ; he who observes 
unity, follows carefully the most agreeable order of nature, and does not jumble 
together incongruous things, nor throw out his thoughts in a confused or chaotic 
mass ; and he who writes with strength, so disposes or marshals all the parts of 
each sentence, and all the parts of the discourse, as to make the strongest im- 
pression. A person's style, according as it is influenced by taste and imagina- 
tion, may be dry, plain, neat, elegant, ornamental, florid, or turgid. The most 
common faulty style is that which may be described as being stiff, cramped, 
labored, heavy, and tiresome; its opposite is the easy, flowing, graceful, 
sprightly, and interesting style. One of the greatest beauties of style, one too 
little regarded, is simplicity or naturalness ; that easy, unaffected, earnest, and 
highly impressive language which indicates a total ignorance, or rather, inno- 
cence, of all the trickery of art. It seems to consist of the pure promptings of 
nature ; though, in most instances, it is not so much a natural gift as it is the 
perfection of art. 

Dr. Campbell gives the following excellent laws of language, which should 
be ever kept in mind, and which will best exemplify themselves in the course 
of the student's life and experience : — 

1. When the usage is divided as to any particular words or phrases, and 
when one of the expressions is susceptible of different meanings, while the 
other admits of only one signification, the expression which is strictly univ- 
ocal should be preferred. 

2. In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded. 

3. When expressions are in other respects equal, that should be pre- 
ferred which is most agreeable to the ear. 

4. When none of the preceding rules takes place, regard should be had 
to simplicity. 

a. All words and phrases, particularly harsh and not absolutely neces- 
sary, should be dismissed. 

b. When the etymology plainly points to a different signification from 
what the word bears, propriety and simplicity require its dismission. 

c. When words become obsolete, or are never used but in particular 
phrases, they should be repudiated, as they give the style an air of vulgar- 
ity and cant, when this general disuse renders them obscure. 

d. All words and phrases which, analyzed grammatically, include a sole- 
cism, should be dismissed. 

e. All expressions whfch, according to the established rules of language, 
either have no meaning, or involve a contradiction, or, according to the 
fair construction of the words, convey a meaning different from the inten- 
tion of the speaker, should be dismissed. 



Note. — The remainder of the book, except the article on Analy- 
sis, might be termed Part Third. In the foregoing pages, we have 
shown what the most ordinary language must have ; in most of the 
following pages, we shall endeavor to show how language acquires 
force and beauty. 



258 RHETORICAL DEVICES. EQUIVALENT EXPRESSIONS. 

/ 

13. RHETORICAL DEVICES. 
EQUIVALENT EXPRESSIONS. 

An expression is equivalent to another, when it conveys the same 
meaning in different words. 

Language often affords us the choice of either a single word, a 

phrase, or an entire clause. 

Ex. — " Pleasant scenes"=Scenes of pleasure=SaeiiG8 that please. Now=at the 
present time. Sharp-edged=having a sharp edge. " The oook, containing the 
story, is in my library" =The book which contains the story, is in my library. " We 
expected him to make a speech"=We expected that he would make a speech. " The 
river was so deep as to be impassable — that it was impassable — that it could not be 
1 over" 



Transitive verbs may be used in either voice. 
Ex. — " Cain killed Abel"=Abel was killed by Cain. 

We may sometimes express an assertion modestly by substituting 

a denial of the opposite. 

Ex. — " I remember your promise"=I have not forgotten your promise. " He is 
wise;" " He is not ignorant;" "He is no fool." "She is handsome;" "She is 
not homely." 

It or there is often used to introduce a sentence more elegantly. 

Ex. — " It is not probable that those who are vicious in youth, will become vir- 
tuous in old age." "There never was a time when labor was more in demand or 
better rewarded." 

Frequently, we may use an entirely different word, or mode of 

expression, with equal or even greater propriety. 

Ex. — "The gentleman does not possess the necessary qualifications'^ He is 
unfit for the business. "She died;" " God released her from her pain." "The 
one was a horse, named Pound-cake ; the other, a mule that ivagged his long ears to 
the call of '-Johrt." " My opponent does perhaps not see that he has contradicted 
himself;" " The honorable Senator does not seem to know that he is caught tight 
and fast in the fixed fact of a killing contradiction." 

The shortest and most familiar expressions are generally the best. 
The longer or more unusual ones are more ceremonious, and, to be 
appropriate, should imply greater importance of matter, or greater 
accuracy, clearness, or elegance. 

The use of one part of speech, or form, for another, is called 

enaVlage. 

Ex. — " The swallow sings sweet from her nest in the wall." — Dimond. So, we 
used for L 

ARRANGEMENT. 

" Forth rushed with whirlwind sound 
The chariot of paternal Deity." — Milton. 
" Up rose the sun, and up rose Emilie." — Chaucer. 
11 Silver and gold have I none^^-Bible. 
" We set him loose, and away he ran." — Swiff s Gulliver ] s Travels. 

How spirited does the arrangement of the words make the foregoing sentences. 



RHETORICAL DEVICES. ARRANGEMENT. 259 

Arrangement may be considered with reference to words, phrases, 
and clauses. 

The place most important in a sentence, is usually its beginning ; 
the next most important is the ending. 

Hence the subject, which is the germ or source of the whole 

sentence, naturally takes the first place ; and, in some languages, the 

verb is generally reserved for the end. 

Ex. — "He maintained a large army at his own expense. " "Rome was an ocean 
of flame." — Croly. " Him the Almighty hurled.' 1 ' 1 — Milton. 

An adjective, an adverb, a verb, or a substantive, may sometimes 

usurp the place of the subject, or be brought out at the close of the 

sentence; especially when it sets forth what is most striking, or 

what is uppermost in the speaker's mind. 

Ex. — "Louder and louder the deep thunder rolled, as through the myriad halls 
of some vast temple in the sky ; fiercer and brighter became the lightning; more 
and more heavily^ the rain poured down" — Dickens. What a sentence ! " Then 
never saw I charity before." "Then rushed the steed to battle driven." "The 
goods he sent away, and the money he put into his pocket." " Strait is the gate, 
and narrow is the way, that lead to life eternal." "Long was the way and dreary." 
— Milton. By placing long at the beginning, and dreary at the end, now admirably 
has Milton expressed what must have been most striking and disheartening to 
Satan, who was about to undertake his journey over Chaos. 

Frequently, an adjunct, a participial phrase, or an infinitive phrase, 
may be transposed. 



Ex. — "In proportion to the increase of luxury, the Eoman State evidently de- 
Lined" =The Koman State, in proportion to the increase of luxury, evidently declined 
=The Roman State evidently declined in proportion to the increase of luxury. 



Frequently, the clauses may change places, or one be placed 

within another. 

Ex. — "If you desire it, I will accompany you ;" "I will accompany you, if you 
desire it;" " I will, if you desire it, accompany you." 

Some regard should he paid to the importance and the natural 

order of things. 

Ex. — " The cloud-capt towers, the gorgeous palaces, 

The solemn temples, the great globe itself, 
Yea, all that it inherit, shall dissolve : 
And, like the baseless fabric of a vision, 
Leave not a rack behind."— Shakespeare. 

But the mind sometimes disregards the natural order of time or 
place, and puts forth first what is first or most thought of. 

Ex.— " "Where I was bred and born." — Shakespeare. 

A sentence so constructed that the meaning is suspended till the 

close, is called a period. 

Ex. — " When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another 
* * * a decent respect to the opinion of mankind requires, that they should 
declare the causes which impel them to separation." — Jefferson. 

The transposition of words, grammarians call hyper'baton. 

Ex. — "From crag to crag, the rattling peaks among, leaps the live thunder."— 



260 RHETORICAL DEVICES. ELLIPSIS. PLEONASM. 

ELLIPSIS, OR OMISSION. OF WORDS. 

For the sake of brevity and force, words not necessary to convey 
the meaning are sometimes omitted. 

Ex.— "A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse !" is much more forcible 
than, Fetch me a horse ! fetch me a horse ! I would now give my kingdom for a 
horse. "A boy and [a] girl." " The old bridge and the new [bridge]." " Sweet 
[is] the pleasure, rich [is] the treasure." — Dry den. 

In the following stanza, the omission of which is quite elegant : — 

" I hear a voice — thou canst not hear, 

Which says I must not stay ; 

I see a hand — thou canst not see, 

"Which beckons me away." 

Omitted words are such as have already been mentioned, or else 

such as may be readily inferred from the words used. 

Suppose you should see merely a horse's head projecting from behind a stable, 
would you not, from your knowledge, know what animal is there even without 
seeing him ? The same principle allows ellipsis, or the omission of words. 

In analyzing and parsing, only such words should be supplied 

as are necessary to complete the construction. 

PLEONASM, OR REPETITION OF WORDS. 

Sometimes more words may be used than are absolutely necessary. 

Ex. — " I saw it with my own eyes" " The vessel sailed for Cuba, and not for 
New York." " Our boat sunk down to the very bottom." 
" One of the few, the immortal names, 
That were not born to die." — Halleck. 

The same word or the same construction may sometimes b< 
repeated. 

" Strike — till the last arm foe expires ! 
Strike — for your altars and your fires ! 
Strike — for the green graves of your sires ! 

God, and your native land !" — Halleck. 
" No employment for industry — no demand for labor — no sale of the produce of 
the farm — no sound of the hammer, bat that of the auctioneer knocking down 
property !" — Benton. How well here does no indicate the utter prostration of busi- 
ness and prosperity. 

" The endless sands yield nothing but small stunted shrubs — even these fail 
after the first two or three days ; and from that time you pass over broad plains — 
you pass over newly reared hills — you pass through valleys that the storm of the 
last week has dug — and the hills and the valleys are sand, sand, still sand, and 
only sand, and sand, and sand again." — Eothen: Crossing the Desert. How well 
here does repetition indicate the tediousness and weariness felt by the traveler. 
" Howbeit, the door I opened, or so I dreamed ; 
Which slowly, slowly gaped." — Hood's Haunted House. 
Here slowly, repeated, very ingeniously intimates the fear and hesitation of the 
opener. 

" Mourn, hapless Caledonia, mourn." "Fal'n, fal'n, fal'n, fal'n, fal'n from his 
high estate, and weltering in his blood." " Our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred 
honors." " There is but one, one Mary in the world for me." 
" She winks, and giggles, and simpers, 
And simpers, and giggles, and winks ; 
And though she talks tut little, 

'Tis a great deal more than she thinks." — Stark. 



■ 



RHETORICAL DEVICES. EXERCISES. 261 

"Explain upon a thing till all men doubt it; 

And write about it, and about it." — Pope's Dunciad. 
M By foreign bands tby dying eyes were closed ; 

By foreign bands tby decent limbs composed ; 

By foreign bands tby bumble grave adorned ; 

By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned." — Pope, 
"Must I then leave you ? Must I needs forego 

So good, so noble, and so true a master ? 

Tbe king sball have my service, but my prayers 

For ever and for ever shall be yours." — Shakespeare. 

Authors sometimes consider it a beauty to begin two or more 
words of the same line, or in the same construction, with the same 
letter. This is called alliteration. 

" In friendship false, implacable in bate, 
Kesolved to ruin, or to rule tbe state." — Dryden. 

"Fields forever fresh, and groves forever green. 11 

11 Hound rugged ?'ocks y rude ragged rascals ran. 11 

u Alike for feast and fight prepared, 
Battle and banquet both they shared." — W. Scott. 



EXERCISES. 

Change the voice : — 

Jobn fed the horse. Conrwallis was defeated by Washington. He made 
it. His friends will recommend him. I offered him a situation. 

Change the participial and the infinitive phrases into clauses : — 

The teacher being in sight, all the boys ran to their books. He came to 
examine the matter himself. His views are so extravagant as to be ridiculous. 
Having paid his clerk, he dismissed him. 

Use it: — 

To devise any apology for such conduct, is utterly impossible. 

Use there : — 

Not one man was in the country, unwilling to defend it. Thorns are to roses. 

Change into compound objectives : — 

My boots with red tops. Violets of sweet scent fringed the bank. The 
live-oaks of the South, that are curtained with moss. 

Change the words, or the mode of expression : — 

Every one who hunts after pleasure, or fame, or fortune, is still restless and 
uneasy till he has hunted down his game. — Swift. I bore the diminution of 
my riches without any outrages of sorrow, or pusillanimity of dejection. — John- 
son. Suspenders were abandoned with the first intimation of the present 
summer solstice. — Willis. 

Change the arrangement, and occasionally the mode of expression : — 

A person gains more by obliging his inferior, than by disobliging him. The 
murmurs of the people were loud, as their sufferings increased. Yarious, sin- 
cere, and constant are the efforts of men, to produce that happiness which the 
mind requires. The necessary ingredients of friendship are confidence and 
benevolence. If beasts could talk, they might often tell us a cruel story. For 
many a returning autumn, a lone Indian was seen standing at the consecrated 
spot we have mentioned ; but, just thirty years after the death of Soonseetah, he 
was noticed for the last time. 

Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, 

Where heaves the turf with many a mouldering heap, 
Each in his narrow cell forever laid, 

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. — Gray. 



262 RHETORICAL FIGURES. 

Change to prose : — 

For see, ah ! see, while yet her ways, 

With doubtful steps, I tread, 
A hostile world its terrors raise, 

Its si] ares delusive spread. — Merrick. 
Supply all the omitted words : — 

The large and the little man were great friends. Stay longer. Arm, sol- 
diers ! Yain — vain — give o'er. How now, Tubal, what news from Genoa ? 
A diamond gone, cost me three thousand ducats in Frankfort ! The combat 
deepens. — On, ye brave. But gone was every Indian we had seen. The 
more, the better. Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits, 
know. He offered a reward to whoever could solve the problem. He has 
behaved as well as you. He has behaved better than you. The honor, and 
not the profits, is what he values most. Quick at meals, quick at work. Better 
long something, than soon nothing. Soon ripe, soon rotten. 

When pain and sorrow wring the brow, 
A ministering angel thou. — Scott. 

14. RHETORICAL FIGURES. 

The expressiveness of language may be increased or extended, by 
the judicious use of the rhetorical figures. They promote clear- 
ness, beauty, brevity, and force. 

Some Southern orator has thus extolled the moral influence of woman : — 
" Woman wields the Archimedean lever whose fulcrum is childhood, whose 
weight is the world, whose length is all time, and whose sweep — is eternity 1" 
" Burns thus laments the vanished happy days of youth: — 
" Still o'er these scenes my memory wakes, 
And fondly broods with miser care ; 
Time but the impression deeper makes, 
As streams their channels deeper wear." 
Dryden speaks thus of the inventress of the church-organ : — 
" He raised a mortal to the skies, 
She drew an angel down." 
That is, the organ, at divine service, is as an angel that has just hastened down 
from heaven, to instruct and lead the choir in praising God. 

Grattan closes his character of Chatham with this sublime sentence : — 
" He struck a blow in the world, that resounded through the universe." 
All these examples owe their beauty and vigor chiefly to the figures which they 
contain. A perfect classification of the rhetorical figures is perhaps impossible ; 
for sometimes several set the same expression aglow at once. Some rhetoricians 

Eretend to have seen more than 250 different ones ; the following classification, 
owever, will about exhaust the subject. 



1. A simile is an express comparison. 

Ex. — "The music of Carryl was, like the memory of joys that are past, sweet 
and mournful to the soul." — Ossian. u The child reclined on its mother's bosom 
as some infant blossom on its parent stem.'''' — Mrs. Sigourney. " He [the steed] 
looked as if the speed of thought were in his limbs." — Byron. " Too much gov- 
ernment may be a greater evil than no government. The sheep are happier among 
themselves than under the care of the wolves.' 1 '' — Jefferson. Sometimes we find sucn 
condensed similes as this : "A false friend and a shadow attend only while the 
sun shines." 



RHETORICAL FIGURES. 263 

2. A metaphor is an implied comparison. It is a word or 
an expression applied from one object or attribute to another, on 
account of some resemblance. It sometimes comprises several words. 

Ex. — " Life is an isthmus between two eternities." u Her disdain stung him 
to the heart." " Bonaparte called burning Moscow an ocean of flame." " The 
morning of life." " The storms of life." " Some mute, inglorious Milton here may 
rest." — Gray. " Man ! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear." — Byron. " You 
are always putting your nose into my affairs." " A heart ! a cushion to stick pins 
into. For so the world has it." — Jerrold. " Sin is a hitter sweet, and the fine colors 
of the serpent by no means make amends for the poison of his sting. 11 — South. 

3. An allegory is a fictitious discourse on one thing, suggestive 
of a train of thoughts, usually instructive, on another. It has been 
called continued metaphor. 

Ex. — " Thou hast brought a vine [the Jewish nation] out of Egypt : thou hast 
cast oat the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst 
cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the 
shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars." — Bible. See 
Bunyan 7 s Pilgrim's Progress, Addison's Vision of Mirza, Johnson's Journey of a 
Day, Eontenelle's Empire of Poetry, Poe's Haunted Palace, Milton's Sin and Death. 

The allegory includes parables and fables. Similes, metaphors, and allegories, 
are all founded on resemblance ; but some allegories imply personification. Re- 
semblance may be either in the appearance of objects, or in their relations or 
effects. The latter is commonly called analogy. " Far through the rosy depths ;" 
i. e., sunset sky. Appearance. "Have you a key to this arithmetic?" Anal- 
ogy- 

4. Personification represents as persons, or as rational or 

living beings, objects that are not such in reality. 

Ex. — " How sweet the Moonlight sleeps upon this bank!" — Shakespeare. 
" Cheered with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles." — Milton. "There Honor 
comes a pilgrim gray." — Collins. " Greece cries to us from the convulsed lips of her 
poisoned Demosthenes ; and Borne pleads with us in the mute persuasion of her 
mangled Tully." — Everett. " How does God reveal himself in nature ? She an- 
swers thee with loud voices, and a thousand tongues : 'God is love.' " — Sherlock. 

Spring. — " And buds that yet the blasts of winter fear, 

Stand at the door of life, and ask to clothe the year." — Dryden. 

The slight personification which merely represents a noun naturally neuter as 
masculine or feminine, is sometimes called syllepsis. " The ship was delayed on 
her voyage." 

Personification is probably the noblest, the most creative, of all the figures ; 
being the very soul of poetry. It is closely allied to metaphor, and sometimes it 
is based on metonymy or synecdoche. 

5. A metonymy is the proper word or expression for one thing, 
applied to another, different in kind, but so related that the mind 
readily perceives what is meant. It is founded on the relations of 
cause, effect, contiguity in place, and contiguity in time. The cause, 
the effect, and the circumstances ; the container, and the thing con- 
tained ; the sign, and the thing signified ; the whole and its parts, — 
are naturally associated in the memory, and readily suggest one 
another. 



264 RHETORICAL FIGURES. 

* 
Ex. — "They have Moses and the prophets •" i. e., their writings. " I have read 
Homer and Virgil." " The women and children were put to the sword ;" i. e., to 
death. " The husbandman has lost his sweat ;" i, e., the reward of his labor. "Gray 
hairs should be respected ;" i. e., old age. " He was the sigh of her secret soul ;" 
i. e., the youth for whom she sighed in secret. " We drank but one bottle." 
"Pennsylvania passed certain resolutions." " He assumed the sceptre ;" i. e., the 
regal authority. Sign for thing signified. We often use this figure to avoid dis- 
agreeable circumlocution. When a grammarian says, " The predicate is that which 
is affirmed of the subject," he means, " The predicate denotes that which is affirm- 
ed of what the subject denotes." 

" My adventurous song." Attribute transferred from one object to an accompany- 
ing object. "Drowsy night ; musing midnight ; jovial wine ; giddy heights ; the 
fearful, dizzy brink ; bleating mountains." " The ploughman homeward plods his 
weary way" "You have a very impudent mule," said a young man to another 
who had just rode between him and a young lady. 

6. A synecdoche is a term or an expression applied to more or 

less than it strictly denotes. Some grammarians say, " Synecdoche 

is the naming of a part for the whole, or of the whole for a part." 

Ex. — " Give us our daily bread ;" i. e., food. " We bought a hundred head of 
sheep." " The same day were adcled unto them three thousand souls." Observe 
that the preaching was to save souls, and hence the selection of this part for the 
whole. " I am glad we are under roof." " Stay thy avenging steel;" i. e., sword. 
" Here lies buried William Jones;" i. e., the body. "The Assyrian came down 
like the wolf on the fold." " So thought the countries of Demosthenes and the 
Spartan, yet Leonidas is trampled by the timid slave." " Youth and beauty shall 
be laid in dust." The character, quality, or attribute of a person is of course a 
part of him. " To his Excellency the Governor." " 'Crate'rus,' said Alexander, 
* loves the Icing ; but Hephaestion loves Alexander.' " "He remained silent, and 
thus wisely kept the fool within." " Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain ;" 
i. e., a large number. " The thirsty Texan pointed his finger down his open mouth, 
and said to the Mexican woman, 4 Rio Grande! Rio Grande /' " 

Metonymy and synecdoche are founded, not on resemblance, but on relation ; 
and they sometimes approach each other so nearly as not to be readily distin- 
guished. They enable the speaker to be more definite, by confining the attention 
to that only which is most obvious or intelligible, or to that which necessarily im- 
plies the rest ; they enable him to be more impressive, by drawing the attention 
especially to that on which the fact or action immediately depends ; and fre- 
quently they enable him to avoid circumlocution. 

Ex. — "He addressed the Chair" is more definite than, "He addressed the 
President ;" for it must mean, " He addressed the President in his official capacity." 
" We descried a sail 1 ' [a ship] ; but, " Our keels [ships] ploughed' the deep;" be- 
cause the former accords better with seeing; and the latter, with ploughing. 
"The fruit of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste," is a very artful expression. 
Eve had an unconquerable curiosity to taste the fruit which was forbidden under 
the penalty of death. 

7. £Antitti'e§i§ sets different objects or attributes in contrast. 

Ex. — " Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and heart to 
this vote." — Webster. " Though deep, yet clear." "At his touch, crowns crumbled, 
beggars reigned, systems vanished." — Phillips, if As when a husband or a lap- 
dog dies." — Po^e{ " The notions of Dryden were formed by comprehensive specu- 
lation ; those ol Pope, by minute observation. Dryden is read with frequent as- 
tonishment ; Pope, with perpetual delight." — Johnson. See the first two stanzas 
of Halleck's Bozzaris. 

" To-day man's dressed in gold and silver bright, 
Wrapped in a shroud before to-morrow night." 

" They heard the clarion's iron clang, 
The breeze which through the roses sang." — Groly. 



RHETORICAL FIGURES. 265 

8. Irony sneeringly means the reverse of what the words liter- 
ally denote. It is visually mockery uttered for the sake of ridicule 
or sarcasm. It has the finest effect when the speaker seems to fall 
into the real sentiments of those whom he attacks. 

Ex, — To call a fool a Solomon, or to praise what we mean to disparage, is irony. 
" Have not the Indians been kindly and justly treated? Have not the temporal 
things, the vain baubles and filthy lucre of this world, which were too apt to en- 

fage their worldly and selfish thoughts, been benevolently taken from them ; and 
ave they not instead thereof, been taught to set their affections on things above?" 
— Irvv&g. 

9. Paralip'sis pretends to conceal or omit what it really ex- 
presses or suggests. 

Ex. — u I will not call him villain, because it would be unparliamentary. I will 
not call Mm fool, because he happens to be Chancellor of the Exchequer." — Grattan. 
"Boys, you would not throw stones at the Police, — would you?" — O'Connell, 
thus putting into their heads what he wants them to do, — inciting the mob to a riot. 
" Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts : she needs 
none. There she is, — behold her and judge for yourselves. There is her history, 
— the world knows it by heart. The past, at least, is secure. There is Boston, 
and Concord, and Lexington, and Bunker Hill, — and there they will remain for 
ever." — Webster. 

" Must I remember ? Why, she should hang on him 
As if increase of appetite had grown 
By what it fed on ; yet, within a month — 
Let me not think — Frailty, thy name is woman." — Shakespeare. 

10. Hyper'bole greatly exaggerates what is founded in truth. 
To be proper, it should imply strong emotion in the speaker, or 
the apprehension that the hearer would not otherwise attach suffi- 
cient importance to what is said. 

Ex. — " Brougham is a thunderbolt." " He was the owner of a piece of land not 
larger than a Lacedemonian letter" " That fellow is so tall that he does n't know 
when his feet are cold." 

"Some Curran, who, when thrones were crumbled, and dynasties forgotten, 
might stand the landmark of his country's genius, rearing himself amid regal 
ruins and national dissolution, a mental pyramid in the solitude of time, beneath 
whose shade things might moulder, and around whose summit eternity must 
play." — Phillips. 

u Falstaff, thou globe of flesh, spotted o'er with continents of sin." — Shakespeare, 
" Here Orpheus sings ; trees, moving to the sound, 
Start from their roots, and form a shade around." — Pope. 

11. Ciianax means ladder. It is a gradual climbing, or rise 
of thought, from things inferior to greater or better. When re- 
versed, it is called anticlimax. 

Ex. — " The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent — augmented into a 
river — expanded into a sea." — Irving. " Here I stand for impeachment or trial ! 
I dare accusation ! I defy the honorable gentleman ! I defy the government ! I 
defy their whole phalanx !" — Grattan. 

"A Scotch mist becomes a shower; and a shower, a flood; and a flood, a 
storm; and a storm, a tempest; and a tempest, thunder and lightning; and thun- 
der and lightning, heaven-quake and earthquake." — Prof. Wilson. 

Anticlimax: "Great men — such as Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Aaron 
Burr, Stephen Arnold, and the friend of my worthy opponent." — Political Speech. 
See Irony. 

12 



266 RHETORICAL FIGURES. 

12. Allusion is such a use of some word or words as will 
recall some interesting fact, custom, writing, or saying. It is usually 
founded on resemblance or contrast. 

Ex. — " Give them Saratoga in New York, and we'll give them YorMown in 
Virginia." — Political Speech. " When you go into the museum, be Argus, but not 
Briareus." " The excesses of our youth are drafts upon our old age, payable about 
thirty years after date." 

"Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed, 
Close at my elbow stir their lemonade." — Holmes. 

A continued allusion or resemblance in style, is termed parody. 
There may, at the same time, be a contrast in sentiment. A play 
on the sound or meanings of a word, is termed a pun. 

Ex. — " 'Tis the last rose of summer,- left blooming alone ; 
All its lovely companions are withered and strown; 
No flower of her kindred, no rosebud is nigh, 
To reflect back her blushes, or give sigh for sigh* 
I'll not leave thee, thou lone one, to pine on the stem ; 
Since the lovely are sleeping, go, sleep thou with them. 
Thus kindly I scatter thy leaves o'er the bed 
Where thy mates of the garden lie scentless and dead," <fcc. 
Paeody : u Tis the last golden dollar, left shining alone ; 

All its brilliant companions are squandered and gone. 
No coin of its mintage reflects back its hue, 
They went in mint-juleps, and this will go too ! 
I'll not keep thee, thou lone one, too long in suspense ; 
Thy brothers were melted, and melt thou, to pence ! 
I'll ask for no quarter, I'll spend and not spare, 
Till my old tattered pocket hangs centless and bare," &c. 
Pun : " Ancient maiden lady anxiously remarks, 

That there must be peril 'mong so many sparTcs ; [fire ;] 
Eoguish-looking fellow, turning to the stranger, 
Says it's his opinion she is out of danger." — Saxe. 

13. En'pliemism is a softened mode of speech for what would 

be offensive or disagreeable if told in downright plain language. 

It is often based on other figures, but it is effected most frequently 

by circumlocution ; that is, by a round-about mode of expression. 

Ex. — " You labor under a mistake," for, " You lie." " He does not keep very 
exact accounts ;" " He cheats when he can." " She certainly displays as little 
vanity, in regard to her personal appearance, as any young lady I ever saw;" " She 
is an intolerable slattern." " Slaves are often called servants." " Sweet child 1 
lovely child ! your parents are no more." Cushi did not say to David, M Absalom 
is killed;' 1 '' but he avoided wounding his feelings as much as possible, by saying, 
" May all the enemies of the king be as that young man is." 

1 4. Interrogation is an animated mode of speech, by which 
the speaker prefers to put forth, in the form of question, what he 
neither doubts, nor expects to be answered. 

Ex. — " Bat when shall we be stronger ? Will it be the next week, or the next 
year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British guard shall be 
stationed in every house ? * * * Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to ba 
purchased at the price of chains and slavery ?" — P. Henry. 
" Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 
Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 

Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death V — Gray. 



RHETORICAL FIGURES. 267 

This figure fixes the attention moro strongly on some important point, than 
a simple declaration would ; and sometimes it implies a defiance to the adver- 
sary or hearer, to deny if he can. 

15. Exclamation is usually an abrupt or broken mode of 
speech, designed to express more strongly the emotions of the 
speaker. 

Ex. — " Dr. Cams. What business could the honest man have in my room I" 
for, "The honest man could have no business in my room." 

"Oh ! that I could return once more to peace and innocence ! that I hung an 
infant on the breast ! that I were born a beggar — a peasant of the field ! I would 
toil till the sweat of blood dropped from my brow, to purchase the luxury of ono 
sound sleep, the rapture of a single tear!" — Schiller. 

" How poor, how rich, how abject, how august. 
How complicate, how wonderful is man I 
Distinguished link in being's endless chain ! 
Midway from nothing to the Deity ! 
A beam ethereal, sullied, and absorbed ! 
Though sullied and dishonored, still divine ! 
An heir of glory ! a frail child of dust! 
A worm ! a god ! I tremble at myself, 
And in myself am lost." — Young. See Antithesis. 
There seems to be a peculiar elegance in the use of this figure, when the 
speaker means to show that the object produces at least some interest or ex- 
citement in his own feelings, though others may not appreciate it so fully. 
Ex. — M How glad from the cool mossy brim to receive it, 

As poised on the curb it inclined to my lips !" 
Here the author slyly intimates that there are persons who underrate the ex- 
cellence of water, as a beverage. 

10. Apos'tropBic is a sudden turning-away in the fullness of 
emotion, to address some person or other object. 

Ex. — "Death is swallowed up in victory. Death! where is thy sting ? O 
Grave! where is thy victory f 1 — Bible. " But — ah ! — him ! the first great martyr in 
this great cause ! him ! the premature victim of his own self-devoting heart ! 
* * * him ! cut off by Providence, in the hour of overwhelming anxiety and 
thick gloom, falling ere he saw the star of his country rise ! how shall I struggle 
with the emotions that stifle the utterance of thy name ! — Our work may perish : out 
thine shall endure ! this monument may moulder away, but thy memory shall not 
fail!'' 1 — Webster. 

" Thou lingVing star, with less'ning ray, 
That lov'st to greet the early morn, 
Again thou usher'st in the day 
My Mary from my soul was torn. 
OAlary ! dear departed shade!' 7 etc. — Burns. See Vision. 

17. Tision represents something that is past, future, absent, 
or simply imagined, as if it were really present. 

Ex. — " One morning, while they were at breakfast, up gallops a troop of horse, 
and presents an order for the arrest of the whole party." — Jeffrey. 

" Frederick immediately sent relief; and, in an instant, all Saxony is over- 
flowed with armed men." — Afacaulay. 

" Advance, then, ye future generations ! We would hail you as you rise in 
vour long succession ! * * * We bid you welcome in this pleasant land of the 
fathers." — Webster. 

"Soldiers ! from yonder pyramids, forty generations of men look down upon 
you !" — Bonaparte. 



268 RHETORICAL FIGURES. 

18. Oiiomatope'ia is such an imitation by the sound of the 
words, as may correspond to or suggest the sense. Sound, motion, 
and even sentiment, may be imitated by this figure. 

Ex. — "Away they went, pell-mell, hurry-skurry, wild "buffalo, wild horse, wild 
huntsman, with clang and clatter, and whoop and halloo, that made the forests 
ring 1" — Irving, 

" On a sudden open fly, 
With impetuous recoil and jarring sound, 
Th' infernal doors, and on their hinges grate 
Harsh thunder." — Milton, 

" Heaven opened wide 
Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound 
On golden hinges turning." — Milton. 
" When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, 
The line too labors, and the words move slow." — Pope. 

To this figure may also be referred such new-coined expressions as these : 
11 He was bamboozled." il He offered me the whole capoodle for three hundred 
dollars." "Now she gallivants it with another." "I mean that curve, flash, 
flourish, — or circumbendibus — if you please — which be always sticks to his name." 



Two or more figures are sometimes involved in the same ex- 
pression. 

Meton. and Meta. : " Here the sword and sceptre rust ; 

Earth to eartb, and dust to dust." — Groly. 
Meton. and Person. : " All Switzerland is in the field ; 

She will not fly, she can not yield." — Montgomery. 
Exclamation, Interrogation, Climax, and Antithesis: "I — a foreigner! Yes, 
gentlemen ! But who was De Kalb ? Who was McDonald ? Who was Pulaski ? 
Who was La Eayette ? and — wlio was Arnold !" — Dr. Shannon. 



The figures underlie the entire fabric of language. The principles 
which they involve, have produced, and continue to produce, most of 
the various meanings or applications of words, and often, the words 
themselves. Nearly one half of the meanings of words, as given in 
our dictionaries, are but faded figures, — -faded metaphors, faded me- 
tonymies, and faded synecdoches. 

Ex. — "The blooming rose," is literal ; " The blooming damsel," is metaphorical. 
"A clear brook," literal' "A clear sky," metaphor; "A clear demonstration," 
metaphor; "A clear head," metaphor or metonymy. "A hard rock," literal; 
" A hara lesson," metaphor ; "A hard heart," metaphor. " To apprehend a 
thief," literal; "To apprehend the meaning ," metaphor ; "To apprehend [fear] 
danger," metaphor and motonymy. " Imagination 1 '' — "the making of images or 
idols," literal and obsolete ; "the making of images in the mind," metaphor ; " the 
faculty," metonymy (cause) ; " the result" (as, " strange imaginations"), metonymy. 

The faculty, its action, the manner of its action, the result of its 
action, and whatever exhibits or concerns any of these, have all, 
frequently, but one name in common. 

From the material world around us, or from the world of the 
senses, the mind has borrowed nearly all the words in which it has 
clothed its own or peculiar possessions ; that is, many words, applied 
first to material things, have been extended to things intellectual or 
abstract. 



RHETORICAL FIGURES. EXERCISES. 260 

M The spirit in its literal import is breath or wind. Its states are standings, its 
emotions are movements, its sensibilities are feelings, its -y^rns and iifeo* are sights, its 
conceptions and perceptions are takings, its apprehension and comprehension are a 
holding, its reflection is a turning back, its purpose is an exhibition, its inference is a 
bringing in, and its conclusion is a shutting up." — Pro/. Gibbs. u Rectitude is 
straight/ness, error is a wandering, transgression is a going over, education is a draw- 
ing out, a language is a tongue, and heaven is what is heaved or arched." — j&. 
"Bright hopes, unshaken confidence, corroding cares." — i#. 

By frequent use, the figurative sense of words and phrases be- 
comes literal, or is considered so. 



EXERCISES. 



Point out the figures, and define them : — 

Ambition often puts men upon performing the meanest offices : so climbing 
and creeping are performed in the same posture. — Swift. No, Orlando; men 
are April when they woo, December when they are wed ; and maids are May 
while they are maids, but the sky changes when they are wives. — Shakespeare. 
What a piece of work is man! how noble in reason! how infinite in faculties! 
in action, how like an angel 1 in apprehension, how like a God ! — Id. Honor 
travels in a way so narrow, where but one goes abreast — Id. What's this ? a 
sleeve? 'Tis like a demi-cannon. Here's snip, and nip, and cut, and slish, and 
slash. — Id. The lover can see a Helen in a brow of Egypt. — Id. When sor- 
rows come, they come not single spies, but in battalions. — Id. Where Midnight 
listens to the lion's roar. Must I leave thee, Paradise ? — Milton. One, with 
God on his side, is a majority. He sells, he buys, he steals, he kills, for gold. 
Humbled, but not dispirited ; disappointed, but not despairing. But when they 
shook the thirty pieces of silver at you, you took them. A life on the ocean 
wave, a home on the rolling deep. Yes, this [a scull] was once ambition's airy 
hall, the dome of thought, the palace of the soul. — Byron. Canst thou send the 
Lightnings, that they may go, and say unto thee, u Here we are I" — Bible. Moses 
the lawgiver and God's first pen. — Bacon. 



1. Figures should be well founded, becoming, striking, congruous 
throughout, not too numerous, and not overstrained or carried too far. 

2. Figurative language should be preferred to plain language, only 
when it will express the meaning better, or improve the discourse. 

Improprieties. — " The colonies were not yet ripe to bid adieu to British con- 
nection." — Jefferson. Incongruous ; mixed metaphor. " There is not a single 
view of human nature that is not sufficient to extinguish the seeds of pride." — 
Addison. How can a view extinguish, — and worse, extinguish seeds. " The 
commercial liberties of rising states were shackled by paper chains." — Bancroft. 
The phrase paper chains suggests nothing formidable. " When the mustang is 
caught in a lasso, all his struggles serve only to rivet his chains, and deprive him 
of breath." — Hist, of Texas. Where did the author get the " chains ?" " Flowers 
are the sweetest things that God ever made, and forgot to put a soul into." — Rev. 
H. W. Beecher. Quite fanciful, though rather puerile and fantastic. " We kneeled 
for the last time by that wonderful old furnace [a volcano], where the hand of 
God works the bellows." — Rev. Geo. Cheever. A figure that represents God as a 
bellows-blower, seems to me undignified and unbecoming. " A shower had 
just parenthesized the way before us." — Willis. The resemblance is not so ob- 
vious as it should be. " He had as numerous an offspring as a Greek verb."— 
Travels. Farfetched and obscure. "OmaidI thou art so beauteous that yon 
bright sun is rising all in haste, to gaze upon thee." — Novel. Overstrained. 



270 RHETORICAL FIGURES. OBSERVATIONS. 

"Why, beautiful nymph, do you close the curtain that fringes your eyes?"-— 
Newspaper Poem. Worse. " Up to the stars the sprawling mastiffs fly, and 
add new monsters to the frighted sky." — Blacklock. Terrible dog-barking, truly ! 
"No flower of its kindred, no rose-bud is nigh, to give back blush for blush, or 
exchange sigh for sigh." — Moore. Here the two roses are all at once changed 
into persons, — into a pair of blushing, sighing lovers. " Let's grasp the fore- 
lock of this apt occasion, to greet the victor in his flow of glory." — British 
Drama. Could this sentence be expressed by a congruous picture ? To con- 
ceive all the imagery as grouped into one visible picture, is often the best way 
to judge of its accuracy, propriety, or beauty. 

Point out the errors : — 

No human happiness is so serene as not to contain some alloy. These are 
the first fruits of my unfledged eloquence, of which thou hast often complained 
that it was buried in the shade. Since the time that reason began to bud, and 
put forth her shoots, thought during our waking hours has been active in every 
breast. The current of ideas has been always moving. The wheels of the 
spiritual ocean have been exerting themselves with perpetual motion. (Buds, 
currents, and wheels, are all jumbled together.) At length Erasmus, that great 
injured name .... curbed the wild torrent of a barbarous age. — stemmed — 

On the wide sea of letters, 'twas thy boast, 
To crowd each sail, and touch at every coast ; 
From that rich mine, how often hast thou brought 
The pure and precious pearls of splendid thought. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

A figure may be contained in a single word; or it may comprise a phrase, 
a clause, a sentence, or the entire discourse. Sometimes the literal and the 
figurative language are interwoven throughout the sentence ; sometimes each 
occupies a distinct part of the sentence ; sometimes they are consecutive in dis- 
tinct sentences ; and sometimes the figurative takes up the entire sentence or 
discourse, leaving the literal to be inferred. 

Most figures are a sort of emblems or pictures, — a universal language, 
favorably received, readily understood, and easily remembered. All literature, 
especially that which has lived longest and delighted the world most, abounds 
in figures. Figures, however, should be used sparingly and judiciously. An 
abuse of them is very apt to render the person so using them ridiculous, and 
thus to diminish at once the dignity and effect of his entire discourse. He that 
forsakes the common path to show his superior adroitness by walking on the 
wire, naturally raises our laughter if he falls. Figures are designed to adorn, to 
illustrate, or to abridge discourse ; and particular regard should therefore be had 
to the subject of the discourse, and to the persons for whom it is meant. Some 
of our Indian agents have very properly addressed Indians in a figurative style 
that would be quite ridiculous if used in addressing their own countrymen. 
Poetry too, being founded in aesthetic principles, admits of much more ornament 
than prose. The figures used, should be such as would naturally arise to a per- 
son whose mind and heart have fully grasped the subject in all its bearings. 
They should never indicate that he left the main subject to search for them. 
Not the cheek that is daubed over with glaring cosmetics is the one to please us, 
but that which glows with a native, healthy, roseate beauty of its own. The 
briefer a figure is, and the more it expresses that is to the point, the better it is. 
How excellent is that figure of Dean Swift's, in which he compares the holding 
of high public offices to dancing on a wire ! It suggests at once the vanity of 
worldly glory, the hankering and folly of ambition, the tact and labor required 
to sustain oneself, the liability to a fall, the stare and huzza of the crowd, and 
their contempt and mockery after a fall. 



Q>JQ 
RHETORICAL FIGURES. OBSERVATIONS. V 

Figures should be not only graphic, and in harmony with the sentiment, but 
they should be so perfect as to bear study or criticism. The very use of figures 
implies an aim to express some thought or sentiment with more adequate and 
becoming simplicity, clearness, beauty, and force. They can therefore be con- 
sidered hardly proper, or preferable to plain language, unless they express the 
meaning better. 

Figures should be new, if possible. When they are already well known, 
they are not striking, and will generally appear stale and insipid. But figures 
should not be drawn from arts or sciences not well known, or from any knowl- 
edge remote from common observation ; for when so derived, they generally in- 
dicate pedantry, and are seldom understood or fully appreciated. Sometimes, 
however, a figure can be veiled in a certain indirectness, or in a little obscurity, 
with a very happy effect. A single word may sometimes show a delicate and 
highly expressive figure lurking along the entire sentence. 

As the same object may often be compared to several different things, care 
must be taken, in using metaphors, not to represent it partly by one comparison 
and partly by another. Thus, — 

" I bridle in my struggling muse in vain, 
That longs to launch into a bolder strain." — Addison. 

That is, his muse is a monster, partly horse and partly ship. 

When several consecutive metaphors are used, they must be congruous with 
one another, or make a perfect picture. Different perfect pictures may, however, 
be successively presented to the mind. Hence different similes or metaphors 
are sometimes used in succession, to illustrate the same subject ; as, — 
"But pleasures are like poppies spread, — 
You seize the flower, its bJoom is shed ; 
Or like the snow-falls in the river, — 
A moment white, then melt forever," &c. — Burns: Tarn O'Shanter. 

But the same picture must not be monstrous, — partly one thing and partly 
another. The same thought should not be expressed partly figurative and partly 
literal ; unless the figurative words are mere tropes, or unless a complete and 
proper figure at once suggests itself throughout the entire sentence or paragraph. 
Such a mixture of figurative and of plain language, or of concrete and of abstract 
objects, as is contained in the following sentences, is inelegant: "Her cheeks 
were blooming with roses and health ;" " The harvest early, but mature the 
praise. 1 '' • 

Style should not be overloaded with figures ; especially if they do not form 
an allegorical picture throughout. Young, imaginative speakers and writers are 
sometimes ridiculously extravagant in the use of figurative language, and thus 
acquire a habit of fustianizing, spouting, or frothing, which they never entirely 
lose. The following is a specimen : — 

" The marble-hearted marauder might seize the throne of civil authority, and 
hurl into thraldom the votaries of rational liberty. Crash after crash would be 
heard in quick succession, as the strong pillars of the republic give way, and 
Despotism would shout in hellish triumph among the crumbling ruins. Anarchy 
would wave her bloody sceptre over the devoted land, and the bloodhounds of 
civil war would lap the gore of our most worthy citizens. The shrieks of women 
and the screams of children would be drowned amid the clash of swords and the 
cannon's peal; and Liberty, mantling her face from the horrid scene, would 
spread her golden-tinted pinions, and wing her flight to some far-distant land, 
never again to revisit our peaceful shores 1" — From a Fourth -of- July Oration. 
This is the ranting, bombastic, or Asiatic style. The proper and opposite qual- 
ity is terseness. A terse style indicates sound common sense. It is not too 
adorned or elaborate, nor extravagant in any respect ; but manly, correct, neat, 
and expressive. 



272 VERSIFICATION.-— FEET. 

13. VERSIFICATION. 



Poetry,* in its highest perfection, is thought, feeling, imagery, 
and music, expressed in language. 

The spirit of music in the poet causes not only the selection of words agreeable 
in sound, but makes the language metrical. 

Deficiency in any of these must be compensated by greater' ex- 
cellence in the rest. 



Versification is either the act or the art of making verse. 
Sometimes it denotes the result, or that peculiar structure of lan- 
guage which distinguishes poetry from prose. 

Verse has rhythm and rhyme. 

Rhythm is essential, but rhyme is not. 

"Thou art, God, the life and light 
Of all this wondrous world we see." — Moore. 
" The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold." — Byron. 
" Lives of great men all remind us 
We can make our lives sublime." — Longfellow. 
"Come as the winds come when forests are rended; 
Come as the waves come when navies are stranded." — Scott. 
" O'nce. upon a midnight dreary^ while I pondered, weak and weary, 
O'ver many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten Idre — 
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, 
As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. 
1 'Tis some visitor,' I muttered, ' tapping at my chamber door — 
Only this, and nothing more. 1 " — E. A. Poe. 

From these lines it is easy to see, that in poetry the voice or the 
mind passes along the words by a sort of regular pulsations, which 
constitute the rhythm, metre, or measure. The Correspondence or 
similarity of sound at equal or proportionate intervals, or in im-* 
mediate succession, is termed rhyme. 

Verse is beautiful language, keeping time like music ; or, syl- 
lables arranged according to accent, quantity, and, generally, rhyme ; 
and so divided into lines as to promote harmony. 



Feet. 

Feet are the smallest rhythmical divisions of the lines. 

* Poetry means, literally, a making ; verse, a turning, i. e., at the end of a line to 
make another line ; iambus, attacking, being first used in satire ; trochee, tripping, run- 
ning ; dactyl, finger ; anapest, reversed, i. e., reversed dactyl; caesura, cutting, divid- 
ing ; spondee, solemn; pyrriiic, a war-dance, thence, lively ; hypermeter, a measure 
over. Ellipsis, a leaving-out; pleon asm, more than enough. Figure, a form of lan- 
guage; simile, likeness; metaphor, transfer; allegory, speaking in another thing ; 
metonymy, change of names ; synecdoche, understanding one thing with another ; an- 
tithesis, setting against ; irony, dissembling ; paralipsis, pausing by or over ; hyper- 
bole, throwing beyond, overshooting ; euphemism, speaking well ; apostrophe, turnina 
away ; onomatopeia, making or coining words. 



VERSIFICATION. — FEET. 273 

Grammarians say they are called feet, because they show how the voice "steps" along 
the lines. I rather think the name was at first given from the fact that men, especially in a 
primitive state of society, naturally use the foot, to mark or beat time in music. 

Feet, in the English language, are formed according to accent and 
quantity. 

A simple foot comprises not more than three syllables. 

There are four principal feet, — the iambus, the anapest, the tro- 
chee, and the dactyl ; and three secondary feet, — the cazsura, the 
spondee, and the pyrrhic. 

An iambus consists of two syllables, and has the poetic accent 
on the second. 

Ex.— " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." 

" The field is heaped with bleeding steeds, and. flags, and cloven mail." 

An asiapest consists of three syllables, and has the poetic accent 
on the last. / 

Ex. — " O'er the land of the free and the home, of the brave." 

A trochee consists of two syllables, and has the poetic accent 
on the first. 

Ex. — "See the distant forest dark and waving." 

A dactyl consists of three syllables, and has the poetic accent on 
the first. 

Ex. — " Bachelor's hall,— what a queer-looking place it is !" 

The iambus and the anapest are kindred feet, and hence they are 

sometimes used promiscuously. 

Ex. — " For the winds and the waves are absent there, 

And the sands are bright as the stars that glow." 

The trochee and the dactyl are kindred feet, and hence they are 
sometimes used promiscuously. 

Ex. — " Bounding away over hill and valley." 

A ca^sii'ra is a long or accented syllable used as one foot. 

Ex.— " Eestless mortals toil for naught." 

" Thou wast that all to me, love, 
For which my soul did pine — 
A green isle in the sea, love, 
A fountain and a shrine."— Poe. 

" Gold ! gold ! gold ! gold ! (4 feet) ) (r ■> x 

Heavy to get fnd light to hold."-J3^. (4 feet) \ ( time ^^ 

A spondee consists of two long syllables about equally accented. 
Sometimes only the first syllable is a long one. 

Ex.— * " Near the lake where drooped the willow, 

Long time ago !" — Morris. 
" O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, 
Eocks, caves, lakes, tens, bogs, dens, and shades of death."— Milton. 

A pyrrfiic is a foot of two syllables left unaccented. Some- 
times the accent in iambic verse, to avoid resting on a short syllable, 

12* 



K^ 



274 VERSIFICATION. POETIC PAUSES. 

passes to the first syllable (if long) of the next foot, making this foot 
a spondee, and leaving the other unaccented. 

Ex. — " Of the low sunset clouds, and the blue sky." — WilUs. 

" Presently in the edge of the last tint. 7 ' — Id. 
" To the faint golden mellowness, a star." — Id. 

Pyrrhics and spondees are not always thus produced ; but they are generally 
best when made on the compensation principle. 

The secondary feet are sometimes allowed to break the regular 
measure, in order to avoid a tedious sameness in the rhythm, or for 
the sake of onomatopeia. 



Poetic Pauses. 

To improve the rhythm or the verse still further, there are also 
two pauses ; the final and the ccesural. 

The f ifiial pause is a slight pause made at the end of each line 
even when the grammatical sense does not require it. 

Ex. — u Ye who have anxiously and fondly watched 

Beside a fading friend, unconscious that 
The cheek's bright crimson, lovely to the view, 
Like nightshade, with unwholesome beauty bloomed." 

The caBsural pause occurs within the line ; most frequently 
about the middle of it. It belongs chiefly to long lines. It not only 
improves the rhythm, but, like emphasis, it often serves to arrest, 
with fine effect, the attention to the meaning. Sometimes a line 
has two or more csesural pauses, one of which is commonly greater 
than the rest. 

Ex. — " But not" to me returns 

Day, | or the sweet approach of even or morn." — Milton. 

M Then her cheek | was pale, and thinner | | than should be J for one so young ; 
And her eyes, | on all my motions, | | with a mute observance hung." — Tennyson* 

" Warms | in the sun, | | refreshes | in the breeze, 
Glows | in the stars, | | and blossoms | in the trees." — Pope, 

M No sooner had the Almighty ceased, | than all 
The multitude of angels, | with a shout ^ 
Loud | as from numbers without number, I sweet 
As from blest voices | uttering joy," etc. — Milton. 

What a fine effect on the sense have the pauses after loud and sweet. Milton 
has generally shown remarkable skill in his management of the poetic pauses. 

Good poets generally aim to construct their verse in such a way 
that the final and ccesural pauses may properly fall where the sense, 
in expressive common speech, naturally requires pauses. The same is 
true in regard to poetic accent, with reference to common accent and to 
emphasis. See stanza 22, p. 281.x/ 

This is a very important principle ; for natural, smooth, and easy versification depends 
mainly upon it. 



VERSIFICATION. QUANTITY. POETIC ACCENT. 275 

Quantity. 

The quantify of a syllable is its relative quantity of sound; or, 
what is equivalent to the same thing, it is the relative time occupied in 
uttering it. 

Quantity and accent are two different things, and shonld never be, as they usually are, 
confounded. Not every long syllable is accented, nor is every short syllable unaccented. 

In respect to quantity, all the syllables in the language may be divided 
into three classes ; long, short, and variable. 

' The quantity of many syllables depends on the manner of uttering them, 
and on their association with other syllables ; yet we may safely say, that 
some syllables are always long, and others always short. 

A syllable having a long vowel or diphthongal sound, especially when 
closed by one or more consonant sounds, is long. 

Ex.— Dry, warm, proud, flashed. " Bound us roars the tempest louder." 

A syllable having a short vowel sound, but closed or followed by con- 
sonants in such a way as to retard pronunciation, is generally long. 
Ex. — "When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw." 
A syllable ending with a short vowel sound, is short. 
Ex. — The, a, to, quantity, salary. 

A syllable next to an accented syllable of the same word, is often made 
short by the greater stress on the accented syllable. 
Ex. — Homeward, pun^ment. 

* An unimportant monosyllable, ending with a single consonant preceded 
by a single short vowel, and joined immediately to the more important 
word to which it relates, is short; as, "at war." 

A few syllables in the language may be pronounced either as one syl- 
lable or as two. 

Ex. — Hour, our, fire, lyre, choir. 

Two syllables may sometimes be contracted into one, either by the 
pronunciation or by omission. 

Ex. — Fie-ry for fi-e-ry, His for it is, threat 1 ning for threatening. 



Poetic Accent. 

The poetic accent, which divides the lines into feet, corre- 
sponds to the beat in music. It controls the position of words ac- 
cording to quantity and word-accent. 

There is perhaps no word so long or so uncouth, that it may not, 
by some arrangement, be brought into some kind of verse. 

Any monosyllable may receive the poetic accent. 

Ex. — " Blue was the lake, the clouds were gone." 
" Gone were the clouds, the lake was blue." 

But it is generally inelegant, and sometimes perhaps incorrect, to 
place it on a short syllable. 

Ex, — We can not read, "As a friend thank him, and with joy see him." 
But we may read, " See" him with joy, and thank him as a friend." 



276 VERSIFICATION. LINES, OR VERSES. 

Monosyllables, being unencumbeied by word-accent, are the words 
most easily reduced to feet. 

When words of more than one syllable are introduced into verse, 
the poetic accent must take the place of the primary or the secondary 
accent. 

Should the poetic accent fall on a different syllable, the word 

must be rejected, or the arrangement must be so varied as to admit 

it. (To this rule we find in our poets a very few exceptions ; chiefly 

in the use of compound words.) 

Ex. — " Perhaps like me lie flounders out a line, 

And begins another — there stops n (Erroneous.) 

A long syllable of a word, next to an accented syllable, never 
receives the poetic accent, or it is made short. (There are a very 
few exceptions.) 

Ex. — " 'Westward the course of Empire takes its way." 

It should not, however, be inferred, that every syllable having 
the word-accent, must also receive the poetic accent. Only this is 
necessary, — that the poetic accent, in its proper march through the 
verse, shall never supersede the other accent, by resting on a differ- 
ent syllable of the same word. 

Ex. — " Whilst our maidens shall dance with their white waving arms, 
Smging joy to the brave that delivered their charms. — (jamvbell. 

The poetic accent generally passes in some regular order through 
the entire poem. Accented syllables demand it; long syllables 
naturally tend to draw it upon themselves ; and short syllables in- 
cline to refuse it. 

When it comes in collision with the common accent, the harshness is gen- 
erally greater than when it rests on a short syllable. It sometimes accommo- 
dates itself to the common accent, where the sense and melody allow a consider- 
able pause ; that is, at the end, at the beginning, or near the middle of the line, 
though rarely the last. It seems, indeed, to be a general principle, to allow the 
poet most liberty at these places, not only as to accent, but also as to extra short 
syllables. (See pp. 27*7—78). To accommodate itself to quantity, the poetic ac- 
cent may sometimes vary from its regular stations, either by preferring the 
previous or the subsequent syllable, or by passing over one more syllable than 
the regular number, or by resting on each of several successive long syllables. 
See pp. 277—78. 

Verse is generally most melodious when the regularly accented 
syllables are long, and the unaccented short. 
Ex. — " At the close of the day when the hamlet is still." 



Lines, or Verses. 

A line? or verse, is the shortest finished portion from which 
the poet may turn to make another. 

A lino, according to its number of feet, is sometimes called a monom'eter (one 



VERSIFICATION. LINES, OR VERSES. 277 

foot), a dim'eter, a trim'eter, a tetrameter, a pentameter, a hexam'eter, a Jieptam'- 
eier, or an octom'eter. 

Iambic or anapestic lines sometimes end with one or two addi- 
tional unaccented short syllables, called supernumerary or hyper- 
meter syllables. Such lines are called hypermeters . 

Trochaic or dactylic lines often end with the caesura. 

Iambic lines may occasionally begin with a trochee, a dactyl, or 
a spondee. 

Ex. — "Bursts the wild cry of terror and dismay." — Campbell. 
"Hovering a space till winds the signal blow." — Milton. 
"Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." — Beatiie. 
" Weep, weep, and rend your hair for those who never shall return." — Macaulay. 

A trochee may sometimes be admitted within an iambic line, 
where the rhythm and sense allow a considerable pause. 

Ex. — " Of goodliest trees loaden with fairest fruit." — Milton. 
"These [prairies] are the gardens of the desert, these 

The unshorn fields, boundless and beautiful." — Bryant. 
" The song is hushed, the laughing nymphs are flown ; 

And he is left, musing of bliss, alone." — T. Moore. 

Iambic lines occasionally admit an anapest, provided it is such 
a one as might be contracted, or one that has no consonant be- 
tween the unaccented syllables, or only a liquid, or such a conso- 
nant as very little obstructs utterance. 

Ex. — " With Heave's artillery fraught, come rattling on." — Milton. 
" And man^ a youth, and many a maid.'''' — Id. 
"That binds him to a woman's delicate love." — Willis. 

It is sometimes a beauty to lengthen out a line a little by short, 
tripping syllables. 

Ex. — "Where erst the jay within the elm's tall crest, 

Made garrulous trouble round her unfledged young." — T. B. Bead. 
"And my native land ! whose magical name 
Thrills to my heart like electric flame." — Fringle. 

Anapestic lines may occasionally begin with an iambus or a 
spondee. 

Ex. — " Their swords are a thousand, — their bosoms are one." — Campbell. 
" / flf to the prairie, sweet maiden, with me ; 
'Tis as green, and as wide, and as wild, as the sea." 

Some anapestic verse occasionally admits a spondee or an iambus. 

Ex. — " The poplars are felled, farewell to the shade, [the poem. 

And the whispering sounds of the cool colonnade." — Cowper. See 

A pleasant rhythm is sometimes produced by throwing, one 
anapest, or even two, into each iambic line. 

Ex. — " I come ! I come ! ye have called me long ; 

I come o'er the mountains with light and song." — Mrs. Bemans, 
"Afar in the desert I love to ride, 
With the silent Bush-boy alone by my side." — Pringle. 



2 7 8 VERSIFIC ATION. STANZAS. VERSE. 

To preserve equality or proportion in time, seems to be a gov- 
erning principle in versification ; and variations in the position of 
the poetic accent or in the number of unaccented syllables, are allow- 
able where the chief poetic pauses occur, — at the beginnings or the 
ends of lines, and at the cwsural pause. 

Ex. — " And give me for my bushel sown 

Twice ten for one?"* (Prolong the sound as you read.) 

"Keeping time, time, time, 
In a sort of Runic rhyme." — Poe. 
"Ye've trailed me through the forest; | ye've trailed me o'er the stream; 
And struggling through the everglade | your bristling bayonets gleam." — Patton. 

This is a very important principle ; for by means of it most of the apparent irregu- 
larities in versification may be explained. 



Stanzas. 

Lines are formed into stanzas. 

A stanza is a complete group of lines constructed in a cer- 
tain way with respect to one another. 

Two consecutive lines form a couplet or distich ; three, a triplet. 
Such lines are usually understood as rhyming together. 

Short lines are seldom formed into stanzas, unless in combina- 
tion with long lines. 

The greater portion of our poetry consists of lines of medium length. 

Long lines are sometimes broken at the csesural pause, and 
written in two lines each. 

Ehymes must begin with different letters, but end with the same 
or nearly the same sound. 

Rhymes that are not exact, yet authorized, are called allowable rhymes. 

Ehymes may run back into the lines as far as three syllables. 
Hence they are classified thus : Single rhymes, double rhymes, 
and triple rhymes. 

A rhyming element usually corresponds to but one other one ; 
but sometimes to more. 

Lines are sometimes so formed as to have rhyming syllables 
within them, as well as at the end. See p. 272. 

Some verse has no rhyme. Such is styled blank verse. 

Blank verse, being without the music of rhyme, must usually, 
to sustain the dignity of poetry, excel in other respects. 



Verse. 

The word verse is properly applicable to any single line of 
poetry ; but, by synecdoche, it may be applied to a stanza, or to 
poetry in general, as a modest term, meaning something that has 
at least the form, if not the spirit, of poetry. 



VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC VERSE. 



279 



Verse, according to what foot prevails in it, is usually divided 
into four kinds ; iambic, anapestic, trochaic, and dactylic. 

Verse that is very irregular in its feet, or in the combination of 
its lines, has been styled composite. 



SCANNING. 



To scan verse is to show how it is formed in respect to its feet, 
— to analyze its versification. 

Each line is usually scanned by itself; but it seems best to scan 

continuously from one line into another, when we can thus avoid 

irregularities. 

Ex. — " 'Tis the last rose of summer 

Left blooming alone ; (4 feet.) 

All its lovely companions 

Are faded and gone." (4 feet.) 

Sometimes more than one mode of scanning, may be applied to 

the same poem. 

That mode is always preferable which is simplest or most musical. 



THE ELEMENTARY COMBINATIONS OF LINES IN ENGLISH POETEY. 

To a person wishing to write verse, perhaps nothing can be presented more 
useful than a general circuit of the combinations of poetic lines, with their scan- 
sion ; especially if so selected as to embrace all the various deviations, or licenses, 
of which poets may avail themselves. 

dtp 5 *' The letters/, i, a, t, d, and c, placed on the left of the stanzas, denote respectively 
feet, iambics, anapests, trochees, dactyls, and cccsuras ; the letters ahove the stanzas show 
the rhyme ; the sign plus (+) denotes hypermeter syllahles ; accentual marks are used to 
aid in showing the versification, and sometimes they show irregular versification ; and up- 
right dashes are sometimes used to show caesural pauses. 



1. IAMBIC 
i. 

a b a b 
"His wit, 

With smart, 
Has hit 
My heart." — Newspaper. 

3. 

a b a b . 
"Love must, in short, 
Keep fond and true, 
Through good report, 



2» 



And evil too." — T. Moore. 

5. 

aab ccb 
" precious one, 
LeJ thy tongue run 

In a sweet fret ; 
And this will give 
A chance to live 
A long time yet." 

Newspaper. 



VERSE. 

2. 

aab c cb 
i+ " The losses, 

The crosses, 
3 i That active men engage ; 

The fears all, 
The tears all, 
. Of dim declining SLge."—2htrns. 
4. 
a b a b 
2i+ "To halls of splendor, 
2 i Let great ones hie ; 

Through light more tender, 
Our pathways lie." — Moore, 

6. 

aab ccb 

2 i " The pibroch rang 

With bolder clang 

3 i + Along the hills of heather ; 

And fresh and strong 
The thistle sprung, 
That had begun to wither." — Hogg* 



280 



VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC VERSE. 



7. 

ab b a 
2 * u His gifts divine 

Through all appear, 
And round the year 
His glories shine." — Songster. 
8. 
abba 
Zf " No :— 'Tis a fast to dole 
2 i Thy sheaf of wheat, 

i And meat, 

Zf tTnto the hungry soul." — Herrhck. 
10. 
aabccb 

2 i " The soul refined 

Is most inclined 
4/ To eVery moral excellence ; 
All vice is dull, 
A knave's a fool ; 
4 i And Virtue is the child of Sense. " 

Young, 
12. 
ab a b 
Zi " When thou art nigh, it seems 
A new creation round ; 
The sun has fairest beams, 
The lute a softer sound." — Moore. 
14. 
a b c c b 

3 i " Tread softly,— bow the head,— 
Zf In reverent silence bow ; 

No passing bell doth toll, — 

Yet an immortal soul 

2* Is passing now." — Mrs. Southey. 

16. 

aabccb 

3/ " Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky, 

3 i Thou dost not bite so nigh 

As benefits forgot ; 
Though thou the waters warp, 
Thy sting is not so sharp 
As friends rememb'ring not." 

Shakespeare. 
18. 
a abb 

4 i " Whenever a noble deed is wrought, 
4/ Whene'er is spoken a noble thought, 

Our hearts, with glad surprise, 
3 i To higher levels rise." — Atlantic 
Monthly. 
19. 
ab ab c d d c 
4:i "An infant on its mother's breast — 
Zi A bouncing boy at play — 

A youth by maiden fair caressed — 
An old man silver gray — 
Zi Is all of life we know : 

2 i A joy — a fear ; 

A smile — a tear ; — 
4i And all is o'er below I — Shaw. 



a aab c c cb 
2 i + " Could love forever 
Eun like a river, 
And Time's endeavor 

2 i Be tried in vain, — 

No other pleasure 
With this could measure ; 
And like a treasure 
We'd hug the chain." — Byron, 

11. 

ab ab c ccb 
2f "Dream, baby, dream ! 
2i+ Thine eyelids quiver. 
Know'st thou the theme 

Of yon bright river ? 
It saith, ' Be calm, be sure, 

3 i Unfailing, gentle, pure : 

So shall thy life endure, 
Like mine, for ever.' " — Cornwall. 

13. Gay's Stanza. 
abab 
3 % + " From Greenland's icy mountains, 
From India's coral strand, 
Where Afric's sunny fountains 
3/ Koll down their golden sand." 

Heber. 
15. 
ab cb 
Zi + " 'Tis swe6t to love in childhood, 
Zf When the souls that we bequeath, 
Zi 4- Are beautiful in freshness, 
Zf As the coronals we wreathe." 

This stanza may also be scanned con- 
tinuously, without irregularity; and it 
may be written as well in two lines. 

IT. 

abab 
3 i " Fly swift, my li^ht gazelle, 
3 i + To her who now lies waking 
To hear thy silver bell 
The midnight silence breaking, 
Moore. 

20. 

ab ab c c 
Zf t "Go, Soul, the body's guest, 
Zi+ Upon a thankless errand ; 
Fear not to touch the best, 

The truth shall be thy warrant : 
3/ Go, since I needs must die, 

3 i And give the world the lie.*** 

3 i+ Tell arts they have not soundness, 
3 i + But vary by esteeming ; 

Tell schools they want profoundness, 
And stand too much on seeming. 
If arts and schools reply, 
Give arts and schools the lie. 
Barnfield. 



VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC VERSE. 



281 



21. See 19. 

a abb 
Zi li What scenes of glory rise 

Before my dazzled eyes I 
4i Young zephyrs wave their wanton 
wings, 
And melody celestial rings." — Oroly, 

23. Short-metre Stanza. 
ab ab 
Zi u The hurricane hath might 

Along the Indian shore ; 
4i And far, by Ganges' banks, at 
night, 
Is heard the tiger's roar." 
Hemans. 

25. 

a a b c c b 
4 i " If solid happiness we prize, 

Within our breast the jewel lies ; 
3 i And they are fools who roam : 

The world has nothing to bestow ; 
From our own selves our joys must 
flow, 
And that dear hut — our home." 
Cotton. 

27. Common-metre Stanza. (Martial.) 

ab cb 
4£ "To hunt the deer with hound and 
horn, 
Earl P6rcy took his way ; 
The child that's yet unborn, may rue 
The hunting of that day." 

Chevy Chase. 

Or thus: — 



Zi 



22. 
ab abb 
" Go, lovely rose ! 
Tell her that wastes her time and m6, 

That now she knows, 
When I resemble her to thee, 
How sweet and fair she seems to be." 
Waller. 

This stanza forcibly illustrates several 
of the chief principles" laid down under 
Versification. 

2*. 
ab ab 
" Cray, guiltless pair, 
What seek ye from the fields of 
heaven ? 
Ye have no need of prayer. 
Ye have no sins to be forgiven." 



2 / 

4& + 

3i + 



26. 

a b cb d d 
3 i + "It was a summer evening, — 

3 i Old Kaspar's work was done, 

4 i And he, before his cottage door, 

Was sitting in the sun ; 
And by him sported on the green, 
His little grandchild Wilhelmine." 
Souihey. 

ab ab. (Sentimental.) 
4/ "A violet by a mossy stone, 
3i Half-hidden from the eye, 
Fair as a star, when only one 
Is shining in the sky." 

Wordsworth. 



" To hunt the deer with hound and horn, Earl Percy took his way ; 
The child that's yet unborn, may rue the hunting of that day." 



28. 

ab cb 

4/ M Fair scenes for childood's opening 

bloom, 
3 i + For sportive youth to stray in ; 
For manhood to enjoy his strength, 
And age to wear away in." 

Wordsworth. 
30. Long-metre Stanza. 
ab ab 
4 i "So blue yon winding river flows, 
It seems an outlet from the sky, 
Where, waiting till the west-wind 
blows, 
The freighted clouds at anchor 
lie . ' ' — Longfellow. 
32. 
a a a 
4t "Around Sebago's lonely lake, 

There lingers not a breeze to break 
The mirror which its waters make." 
Whittier. 



29. 

ab a b 
4ci + " The Ocean looketh lip to heaven, 
Zi As 'twere a living thing ; 

The homage of its waves is given, 
In ceaseless worshiping." 
Whittier. 

31. 

ab a b 
4 i + " Her heart is like a faded flower, 
4 i Whose beauty's lost and sweet- 

ness flown ; 
Forgot, neglected in the bower, 
And left by all to die alone." 
Songster. 

33. 

ab ab 
4 i " There is a calm for those who weep, 
A rest for weary pilgrims found ; 
They softly lie, and sweetlv sleep, . 
2/ Low in the ground." — Mbntgom. 



282 



VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC VERSE. 



34. 

a a b b 
4i "Those evening bells! those Evening 
bells! 
How many a tale their miisic tells 
Of youth and home, and that sweet 

time 
When last I heard their soothing 
chime." — Moore. 

36. 

a a ab 
4i " Who fed me from her gentle breast, 
And hushed me in her arms to rest, 
And on my cheeks sweet kisses 



My Mother." — Thomson. 



i+ 

The expression " My Mother," closes 
each stanza of the poem. A part thus 
repeated, or making the burden of the 
poem, is called a refrain, 

39. Burns's Stanza. 

aa ab ab 

A:i "When ripened fields and azure 

skies, 

Call forth the reaper's rustling 

noise, 
I saw thee leave their evening joys, 

2 i And lonely stalk, 

To vent thy bosom's swelling rise 
In pensive walk." — Bums, 

41. 

a ab c cb 
4a+ " Two spirits reached this world of 
ours : 
The lightning's locomotive powers 

3 i+ or ±i Were slow to their agility : 

In broad daylight they moved 

incog., 
Enjoying, without mist or fog, 
Entire invisibility." 

Campbell. 

43. 

a a ab 
4i " When maidens siich as Hester die, 
Their place ye may not well supply, 
Though ye among a thousand try, 
2* + With vain endeavor." 

Lamb. 

44. 

4 i "By torch and trumpet fast arrayed, 
Each horseman drew his battle- 
blade, 
A:/ And furious every charger neighei 
8 i + To join the dreadful revelry." 

Campbell. 



35. 

ab cb 
4i " All thoughts, all passions, all de- 
lights, 
Whatever stirs this mortal frame, 
Are all but ministers of love, 

3 i And feed his sacred flame." 

Coleridge. 
37. 
4/ " <5h, never talk again to me 

4 i + Of northern climes and British 

ladies ; 
It has not been your lot to see, 
Like me, the charming girl of 
Cadiz." — Byron. 
38. 
ab c cb 
4i "To horse! to horse! the standard 
flies, 

3 i The bugles sound the call ; 

The Gallic navy stems the seas, 
The voice of battle 's on the breeze, — 
Arouse ye, one and all !" — Scott, 
40. 
ab ab cc 

4 % " You have the Pyrrhic dance as yet, 
4/ Where is the Pyrrhic phalanx 

gone? 
Of two such lessons why forget 
The nobler and the manlier 6ne ? 
4* You have the letters Cadmus gave — 
Think you he meant them for a 
slave ?" — Byron, 
43. 
4*+ " Thou art not falss, but thou art 

fickle, 
4 i To those thyself so fondly sought ; 

The tears that thou hast forced to 
trickle, 
Are doublv bitter from that 
thought : 
4*+ 'Tis this which breaks the heart 
thou grievest, — 
Too well thou lov'st, too soon 
thou leavest." — Byron. 
45. 
aab cccb 
4/ " Thou grewest a goodly tree, with 
shoots [roots 

4/ Fanning the sky, and earth-bound 
2iJr So grappled under, 
4 i ~ That thou, whom perching birds 
could swing, 
And zephyrs rock with lightest 

wing, 
From thy firm trunk unmoved 
didst fling 
2/+ Tempest and thunder." 

Magazine: Charter-oak. 
Observe how the change of feet in the 
last line, improves the vigor of the stanza. 



VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC VERSE. 

46. 

a all c 
4ti " His brow "was sad : his eye beneath 

Flashed like a falchion from its sheath ; 
4/* And like a silver clarion ning 

The accents of that mountain tongue, 
i + or 2 i Excelsior ! ' '—Longfellow. 

47. 

a abb o c, &c. 

4/ . " Swift to the breach his comrades fly, — 

4 i ' Make way for hberty V they crv, 

And through the Austrian phalanx dart 

As rushed the spears through Arnold's heart ; 

While, instantaneous as his fall, 

Kout, ruin, panic, seized them all." — Montgomery. 

4 i + u The turkman lay beside the river ; 

The wind played loose through bow and quiver; 

4 * The charger on the bank fed free : 

4/" The shield hung glittering from tne tree. * * * 

Wild burst the burning element 
O'er man and courser, flood and tent ! 
And through the blaze the Greeks outsprang. 
Like tigers, — bloody, foot and fang ! 



With dagger-stab and falchion-sweep, 
Dilving the stunned and staggering heap, 



Till lay the slave by chief and Khan, 
And all was gone that once was man !" — Groly. 
The iambic tetrameter is a sprightly, vigorous measure, in which much of our 
poetry h written. See Scott, Byron, Moore, Butler, Swift, Gay, Mrs. Hemans. 

48. 

a b a b 
Sf " Leaves have their time to fall, 

5/ And flowers to wither at the north-wind's breath, 

8 i And stars to set ; but all — 

5/ Thou hast all seasons for thine own, Oh Death !" — Remans. 

49. 

a b a b c c 
3/ " 'Tis sweet, in the green spring 

5/ To gaze upon the wakening fields around ; 

Birds in the thicket sing, 
5 i Winds whisper, waters prattle from the ground ; 

3 i A thousand odors rise, 

Breathed up from blossoms of a thousand dyes." — Bryant. 

50. 

abb acc 
3/ "Ah ! there 7 s a deathless name ! — 

5/ A spirit that the smothering vault shall spurn, 

5 i And like a steadfast planet mount and burn — 

3 i And though its crown of flame 

5 i + Consumed my brain to ashes as it won me, 

By all the fiery stars ! I'd pluck it on me !" — Willis. 

51. 

ab ab 
5/ " We mourn for thee when blind blank night 

2 i The chamber fills ; 

5 i We pine for thee when morn's first light 

2/ Keddens thS hills." 



284 VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC VERSE. 

52. 

abba 
5i "A long way off Lucinda strikes the men ; 

2/ As she draws near, 

2 i And one sees clear, — 

A long way off one wishes her again." 

53. 

a b a b 
5/-f " It is the Rhine ! our mountain vineyards laving ; 

3 i I see the proud flood shine. 

Sing on the march, with every banner waving, 
Sing, brothers ! 'tis the Rhine." — Hemans. 

54. 

a b a b 
5/ " Westward the course of empire takes its way ; 

4 i The first four acts already passed, 

5 i A fifth shall close the drama with the day ; — 

Time's noblest offspring is the last." — Berkeley, 

55. Pentameters, or Heroic Measure. 5ior5i+. 

In this measure, by far the greatest and most valuable part of our poetry is 
written. It comprises nearly all our blank verse and epic poetry, and all our 
dramatic poetry. See Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, 
Thomson, Cowper, Pollok, Rogers, Byron, Campbell, Crab be, etc. 

Blank. 
5/-f " The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, 

Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven : 

And, as imagination bodies forth 
5i The forms of things unknown, the poet's pen 

Turns them to shape, and gives to airy nothing 

A local habitation and a name." — Shakespeare. 

" Yet, higher than their tops 
hf The verdurous walls of Paradise upsprung, 

Which to our general sire gave prospect large, 
5f Into his nether empire neighboring round. 

5 i And higher than that wall, a circling row 

Of goodliest trees, loaden with fairest fruit, 

Blossoms and fruits at once of golden hue, 

Appeared, with gay enamelled colors mixed ; 

Of which the sun more glad impressed his beams 

Than in fair evening cloud, or humid bow, 

When God hath showered earth." — Milton. 

aabbccdd, &c. 
hf " Oh ! had he been content to serve the crown, 

With virtues proper only for the gown ; 
Or had the rankness of the soil been freed, 
From cockle that oppressed the noble seed ; 
David for him his tuneful harp had strung, 
And heaven had wanted one immortal song." — Dryden. 

56. Elegiac Stanza. 

ab ab 
bi " The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 

The swallow twittering from the straw-built sh6d, 
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, 
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed." — Gray. 



VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. IAMBIC VERSE. 285 

57. 

5 i + " For thou wast monarch born. Tradition's pages 

5 i Tell not the planting of thy forest tree. 

But that the forest tribes have bent for ages 
To thee, ana to thy sires, the subject knee." — EaUecJk. 

58. 
bf " Harp of the North, farewell ! the hills grow dark, 

5 i On purple peaks a deeper shade descending ; 

In twilight copse the glowworm lights her spark, 
The deer half-seen are to the covert wending." — Scott, 

59. 

5 i -f " Philosophers may teach thy whereabouts and nature ; 

5 i + But wise, as all of us, perforce, must think 'em, 

The schoolboy best has. fixed thy nomenclature ; 
And poets, too, must call thee Bob-o-linkum." — Hoffman, 

60. 

ab ab c c 
5 i -f " And thou hast walked about — how strange a story — 

5 i In Thebes's streets, three thousand years ago ; 

When the Memnonium was in all its glory, 

And time had not begun to overthrow 
Those monuments and piles stupendous, 
Of which the very ruins are tremendous." — H. Smith. 

61. Byron's Stanza. 
a b ab ab c c 
5 i + u Ojthat I had the art of easy writing, 

What should be easy reading ! could I scale 
Parnassus, where the Muses sit inditing 

Those pretty poems never known to tail, 
How quickly would I print (the world delighting) 

A Grecian, Syrian, or Assyrian tale ; 
And sell you, mixed with Western sentimentalism, 
Some samples of the finest orientalism." — Byron. 

When iambic hypermeters of moderate length occur only now and then in the 
poem, they are more commonly humorous than serious. 

62. The Sonnet. 
abbaaccadee dff 
5i u And canst thou, Mother, fbr a moment think 

That we, thy children, when old age shall shed 

Its blanching honors on thy weary head, 
Could from our best of duties ever shrink ? 
Sooner the sun from his high sphere should sink, 

Than we, ungrateful, leave thee in that day, 

To pine in solitude thy life away, 
Or shun thee tottering on the grave's cold brink. 
Banish the thought ! — where'er our steps may roam, 

O'er smiling plains, or wastes without a tree, 

Still will fond memory point our hearts to thee, 
And paint the pleasures of thy peaceful home ; 
While duty bids us all thy griefs assuage, 
And smooth the pillow of thy sinking age." — H. K. White. 

63. Spenserian Stanza. 
ab abb cb c c 
ti " There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, 

There is a rapture on the lonely shore, 
There is society, where none intrudes, 



286 VERSIFICATION. SCANNING-. IAMBIC VERSE. 

By the deep sea, and music in its roar. 

I love not Man the less, but Nature more, 
From these our interviews, in which I steal 

From all I may be, or have been before, 
To mingle with the universe, and feel 
6 i What 1 can ne'er express, | yet can not all conceal." — Byron, 

An iambic hexameter is usually called an Alexandrine, 

64. 

a abb 

6 i " The deV was falling fast, | the stars began to blink, — 

I heard a voice; it said, | k Drink, pretty creature, drink 1' 
And looking o'er the hedge, | before me I espied 
6/ A snow-white mountain lamb | with a maiden at its side." — Wordsworth, 

65. 

ab ab c c 

5 i " For ages, on the silent forest here, 

Thy beams did fall before the red man came 
To dwell beneath them ; in their shade the deer 

Fed and feared not the arrow's deadly aim. 
Nor tree was felled, | in all that world of woods, 
Qi Save by the beaver's tooth, | or winds, or rush of floods." — Bryant, 

66. 

a abb 
Qf ** I see the valleys, Spain ! | where thy mighty rivers run, 

And the hills that lift thy harvests | and vineyards to the sun, 
And the flocks that drink thy brooks | and sprinkle all the green, 
7/ Where lie thy plains, | with sheep-walks seamed, | and olive shades 

[between.' ' — Bryant, 

67. Lines Divisible. 

7 i " The melancholy days are come, | The saddest of the year, 

Of wailing winds and naked woods, | And meadows brown and sear." 

Bryant, 

*li "0, better that her shattered hulk | Should sink beneath the wave ! 

Her thunder shook the mighty deep, | And there should be her grave ! 

Nail to the mast her holy flag, — set every threadbare sail, 

And give her to the god of storms, — | the lightning and the gale !" 

Holmes, 
68.* 

7/+ " No ; — the joke has been a good one, | But I'm getting fond of quiet ; 
And I don't like deviations | from my customary diet ; 
So I think I will not go with you | to hear the toasts and speeches, 
But stick to old Montgomery Place, | and have some pig and peaches." 

Holmes, 
" Father and f went down to town | Along with Captain Gooding, 
And there we see the men and boys | As thick as hasty pudding." 

Dr. Shackburg : Yankee Doodle. 

The quantity of iambic verse in English literature, far exceeds that of all the 
other kinds of verse. 

* There is also a sort of doggerel stanza, usually iambic, ending with a long prosy line, and 
frequently found in newspapers ; as, — 

"Now Reuben was a nice young man 
As any in the town ; 
And Phoebe loved him very dear, 
But, on account of his being obliged to work for a living, he 
never could make himself agreeable to old Mr. and Mrs. Brown. 



VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. ANAPESTIC VERSE. 



287 



2. ANAPESTIC VERSE. 



"Move your feet 
To our sound, 
Whilst we greet 
All the ground.' 



1. 

a b a b 

Or, t c Move your feet 
To our sound, 
Whilst we greet 
-Fletcher. All the ground. 



Or, d 



Move your feet 
To our sound, 

Whilst we greet 
All the ground. 



2/ 

2a 



ab a c db d c 

" Now, mortal, prepare, 
For thy fate is at hand ; 
Now, mortal, prepare, 

And surrender. 
For Love shall arise, 

Whom no pow'r can withstand, 
Who rules from the skies 
To the centre." — Granville. 
4. 
ab ah 
The autumn winds nishing 

Waft the leaves that are sear est ; 
But our flow'r was in flushing, 
When blighting was nearest. 
Scott. 
6. 
a a b c c b 
" Come, my mates, let us work, 
And all hands to the fork, 
3 a While the sun shines, our haycocks 

to make : 
2/ So flne is the day, 

And so fragrant the hay, 
That the meadow 's as blithe as the 
wake.' ' — Smart. 



2/+ 
2a + 



2a 



3. 

ab ab c c d e d e 
a " When, in rage, he came there, 
2/ Beholding how steep 
2/ The sides did appear, 
2 a And the bottom how d£ep ; 

2/+ His torments projecting, 

And sadly reflecting, 
2 a -f That a lover forsaken, 
2/ A new love may get ; 

But a neck, when once broken, 
Can never be set," etc. — Walsh. 

5. 

a abb 
"Our life is a dream, 
Our time, as a stream, 
Glides swiftly away ; 
4a And the fugitive moment refuses to 
[stay." — Wesley. 
?• 
a ab bb 
" Let the stupid be grave, 
'Tis the vice of the slave ; 
But can never agree 
With a maiden like me, 
4 a Who is born in a country that 's happy 
and free." 



2a 
2a 

2/ 



2 a 



3a 
3/ 



3fl + 
ft.0 



Za 



4 £ + 
3/ 
4a + 
ha 



8. 
ab ab 
" I am monarch of all I survey, 

My right there is none to clispute ; 
From the centre all round to the sea, 
I am lord of the fowl and the brute." — Cowper. 

9. 

" Though the day of my destiny 's over, 
And the star of my fate has declined, 
Thy soft heart refused to discover, 
The faults which so many could find. v 



-Byron. 



10. 



"The strawberries grow in the mowing, Mill May, 
And the bob-o-hnk sings on the tree ; 
On the knolls the red clover is growing, Mill May, 
Then come to the meadows with me." — Eastman. 

11. 

" How fair is the rose ! what a beautiful flower ! 
The glory of A'pril and May ! 
But the leaves are beginning *to fade in an hour, 
And they wither and die in a day." — Waits. 



288 VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. ANAPESTIC VERSE. 

13. 

ab abb 
3/ " To Riches ? Alas ! 'tis in vain ; 

3f Who hid in their turns have been hid ; 

Their treasures are squandered again ; 
4/ And here in the grave are ail metals forbid 

4 a Save the tinsel that shines on the dark coffin-lid." — KnowUs* 

13. 

ab ab c c 
3/ u The music of stream and of bird 

3 a Shall come back when the winter is o'er ; 

4 a But the voice that was dearest to lis, shall be h£ard 

In our desolate chambers no more I 
4,/ The sunlight of May on the waters shall quiver — 

4 a But the light of hereye hath departed forever !" — Burdell. 

14. 

a abb 
4 a " When the flowers of friendship or love have decayed 

In the heart that has trusted and once been betrayed, 
4/ No sunshine of kindness their bloom can restore ; 

For the verdure of feeling will quicken no more !" — Hoffman, 

4« + " So I hope, from henceforward you ne'er will ask, can I maul 

4/+ This teasing, conceited, rude, insolent animal. 

And if this rebuke might be turned to his benefit, 

(For I pity the man,) I should be glad then of it." — Swift, 

ab a ab 
4/ "A warrior so bold, and a virgin so bright, 

3jf Conversed as they sat on the green ; 

They gazed on each other with tender delight, — 
Alonzo the Brave was the name of the knight, 
The maid — was the fair Imogene." — Lewis. 

15. 

a abb c c dd e e 
Zf-\- " A breath of submission we breathe not ; 

The sword that we've drawn we will sheathe not ; 
4/ Its scabbard is left where our martyrs are laid, 

And the vengeance of ages has whetted its blade. 
3 a -f Earth may hide, waves ingulf, fire consume us ; 

But they shall not to slavery doom us : 
4# If they rule, it shall be o'er our ashes and graves ; 

But we've smote them already with fire on the waves, 

3 a -f And new triumphs on land are before us ; 

To the charge ! — Heaven's banner is o'er us." — Campbell. 

16. 

ab ab 

4 a + " When the black-lettered list to the gods was presented, 
4/ (The list of what Fate for each mortal intends,) 

At the long string of ills a kind goddess relented, 

And slipped in three blessings — wife, children, and friends." 

Spencer* 
17. 

4 a M Should the tempest of war overshadow our land, 

4/-f Its bolts could ne'er rend Freedom's temple asunder ; 

For unmoved at its portals would Washington stand, 
And repulse with his breast the assaults of the thunder." — Paine. 



VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. TROCHAIC VERSE. 



289 



18. 

abab c c cb 

4 a + " When a prince to the fate of the peasant has yielded, 
4/* The tap'stry waves dark round the dim-lighted hall ; 

With 'scutcheons of silver the coffin is shielded, 
4/+ And pages stand mute by the canopied pall : 

4 a + Through the courts, at deep midnight, the torches are gleaming ; 

In the proudly-arched chapel the banners are beaming ; 

Far adown the long isle sacred music is streaming, 
Lamenting a chief of the people should fall." — Scott* 

19. Lixes Divisible. 
abab 

±f " The captive usurper, | Hurled down from the throne, 

Lay buried in torpor, | Forgotten and lone." — Byron. 



3. TROCHAIC VERSE. 



l. 

a a b b c 

t Turning, 

Burning, 

Changing, 

Banging, 
Ztc " Full of grief and full of pain." 

Addison, 

3. 

aab c cb 

2t " 'Tis most oertain, 

By their flirting, 
Ztc Women have most envy shown ; 

Pleased to ruin 

Others' wooing. 
Never happy in their own." 

5. 

aa ab cccb 

2t " Clear wells spring not, 

Sweet birds sing not, 

Loud bells ring not 
d Cheerfully ; 

Herds stand weeping, 

Flocks all sleeping, 

Nymphs back creeping 

Fearfully." — Shakespeare. 



Ztc " Woo the fair one, when around 
3 t Early birds are singing ; 

When o'er all the fragrant ground 
Early herbs are springing." 

Bryant. 



3. 

aabbcc 1 &c. 
tc " See him stride 

Valleys wide, 

Over woods, 

Over floods ; 

So shall I 
3 tc (Lofty poet !) touch the sky."—Smft. 

4. 

ab cb 

St u Whizzing through the mountains, 
2 1 c Buzzing o'er the vale ; 
Bless me ! this is pleasant, 
Siding on a rail." — Saxe. 

G. 

abab 



2tc 

St 

6/ 



±t 



u Can I cease to care, 

Can I cease to languish, 
While my darling fair 
Is on the couch of anguish ?" 
Bur ?i 8. 
7. 

'Though we charge to-day with 
fleetness, 

Ztc Though we dread to-morrow's 
*■ sky, 

There 's o. melancholy sweetness 
In the name of days gone by." 

Tipper. 

9. 

"Husband, husband, cease your strife, 
7/ Nor longer idly rave, sir ; 

Though I am your wedded wife, 
7/ Yet I'm not your slave, sir."— Burns. 



13 



290 



VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. TROCHAIC VERSE. 



10. 

3 t c " Now the pine-tree's waving top 
3 t c Gently greets the morning gale ; 

KMlings now begin to crop 
Daisies in the dewy vale." 

Cunningham. 

13. 

4 1 " Call not this the month of roses — 
2tc There are none to bloom ; 

Morning light, alas ! discloses 
3 t c But the winter of the tomb." 

Dewey, 

13. 

aaabcccb, &c. 

3 tc " Scots who have with Wallace bled, 
Scots whom Bruce has often led, 
Welcome to the gory bed, 

2tc Or to victory." — Burns, 

Compare 3 tc with 4 i. 

15. 

a abbe c, &c. 

3 1 c "It shall come in empire's groans, 
Burning temples, trampled thrones ! 
Then, Ambition, rue thy lust. — 
Earth to earth ! and dust to dust !'" 
Croly, 

17. 

ab abc dc d 

4b t "In the greenest of our valleys 
3 1 c By good angels tenanted, 
Once a fair and stately palace 
(Snow-white palace) reared its head ; 
In the monarch Thought's dominion, 

It stood there ; 
Never seraph spread a pinion 
Over fabric half so fair " — Poe. 

19. 

ab ab cc 

2tc " Poet of the heart, 

Delving in its mine, 
From mankind apart, 
Yet where jewels shine ; 
3 1 c Heaving upwards to the light, 

Precious wealth that charms the 
sight." — Locke. 



20. 

6 tc "He that loves a rosy che'ek, 
Or a coral lip admires, 
Or from starlike eyes doth seek 

Fuel to maintain his fires ; 
As old time makes these decav, 



So his flames must melt away. 



7,1 



Garew. 



11. 



3 tc " Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o'er, 
4 1 Sleep the sleep that knows not ' 

breaking • 
Dream of oattle-nelds no more, 
Days of danger, nights of wak- 
ing."— Scott. 



1£. 



a aab c cb 



Zt 



2tc 



V 



d2tc 
Ztc 

Zt 



11 6ft as summer closes, 
When thine eye reposes 
On its lingering roses, 

Once so loved by thee, 
Think of her who wove them, 
Her who made thee love them ; 
Oh ! then remember me." 

Moore. 

16. 



a aab refrain 



he 



" When the Alhambra walls 
gained, 
On the moment he ordained 
That the trumpet straight should 

sound 
With the silver clarion round. 
Wo is me, Alhama !" 

Byron. 

18. 



ab aa ab cc d d 

Ztc " In a valley that I know, 

t c Happy scene ! 

Ztc There are meadows sloping 

low, 
There the fairest flowers blow, 
And the brightest waters flow, 

All serene ; 
But the sweetest thing to see, 
If you ask the dripping tree, 
Or the harvest-hoping swain, 
Is the rain." — Hoyt. 



31. 

a abb 

4:t " See the ruddy morning smiling, 
Hear the grove to bliss beguiling • 
Zephyrs through the woodland 

playing, 
Streams along the valleys stray- 
ing." — Goldsmith. 



VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. TROCHAIC VERSE. 



291 



22. 

a a ab ab 

4 2 " Never wedding, ever wooing, 
Still a lovelorn heart pursuing, 
Eead you not the wrong you're 
doing, 
2tc In mv cheek's pale hue ? 

All my life with sorrow strewing, — 
Wed, or cease to woo." 

Campbell. 



Uc 






Gt 



13. 

a b c c ab ab 

±t li Ah ! my heart is ever waiting, 
2 tc Waiting for the May, — 

Waiting for the pleasant rambles 
Where the fragrant hawthorn 

brambles, 
With the woodbine alternating, 

Scent the dewy way. 
Ah ! my heart is weary waiting, 
Waiting for the May." 

Dublin Magazine. 



34. 

a abb 

" Then, methought,' I heard a hollow sound, 
Gathering up from all the lower ground ; 
Narrowing in to where they sat assembled, 
Low voluptuous music, winding, trembled. "- 

25. 

ab ab 

" Mountain-winds ! oh ! whither do ye call me, 
Vainly, vainly, would my steps pursue : 
Chains of care to lower earth enthrall me, — 
Wherefore thus my weary spirit woo." — Remans. 



38, 



Lines Divisible. 
a a. &c. 



"Where the wood is waving, | Steady, green, and high, 
Fauns and dryads, nightly, | Watch the starry sky." 

ST. 

ab ab 

1 tJp the dewy mountain, J Health is bounding lightly ; 
On her brow a garland, | twined with richest posies : 
Gay is she, | elate with hope, | and smiling sprightly ; 
Itedder is her cheek I and sweeter than the rose is." — G. Brown. 



38. 
a abb, &c. 

7t " Then in thee let those rejoice, | who seek thee, self-denying, 

All who thy salvation love, | thy name be glorifying." 

39. 

Itc " Come, and tell us, our Ximena, | looking northward far away 

O'er the camp of the invaders, | o'er the Mexican array." — WMttier. 

" Softly blow the evening breezes, | Softly fall the dews of night • 
Yonder walks the Moor Alcanzor, | Shunning every glare of light." — Percy* 

30. 

8 1 " Beams of noon, like burning lances, | through the tree-tops flash and 

glisten 
As she stands before her lover | with raised eyes to look and listen." 

Whittier. 



292 



V ERSIFICATION. SCANNING.— DACTYLIC VERSE. 



4. DACTYLIC VERSE. 

Our literature has but little regular or pure dactylic verse. 



a a a b 

2d " Land of the Pilgrim's pride, 
Land where my fathers died. 
From ev'ry mountain-side 

2 i Let freedom ring." — Smith. 



a a a b c c cb 

2d " Bright in her father's hall 

Shields gleamed upon the wall, 
Loud sang the minstrels all, 

d t Chanting his glory ; 

When of old Hildebrand 
I asked his daughter's hand, 
Mute did the minstrel stand 

2 *+or d t To hear my story." 

Longfellow. 



2. 

a a ab 
2d " Free from satiety 

Care and anxiety, 
Charms in variety, 
d c Fall to his share." 

4. 

ab ab 
2d u Take her up tenderly, 
d c Lift her with care ; 

Fashioned so slenderly, 
Young, and so fair !" — Hood, 



2d " Where shall the lover rest, 
d t Whom the fates sever 

From his true maiden's breast- 
Parted forever." — Scott. 



6. 

a ab c cb 
2d " Bird of the wilderness, 

Blithesome and eumberless, 
3 d c Light be thy matin o'er moorland and lea ; 

Emblem of happiness, 
Blest is thy dwelling-place — 
O, to abide in the desert with thee !" — Hogg. 

7. 
ab ab 
2dtc " Come from the mount of the leopard, spouse, 

2 d t Come from the den of the lion ; 

Come to the tent of thy shepherd, spouse, 
Come to the mountain of Zion." — 67. Brown. 

8. 
a aab c ccb 
8d " Boys will anticipate, | lavish, and dissipate 

3 d c All that your busy pate J hoarded with care ; 

And, in their foolishness, | passion, and mulishness, 
Charge you with churlishness, | spurning your prayer.' 

9. 

a a ab c c cb 
2>dt " Pause not to dream of the future before us ; 

Pause not to weep the wild cares that come o'er us ; 
Hark, Jiow Creation's deep, musical chorus, 
tJnintermitting, goes up into heaven ! 
Never the ocean- wave falters in flowing ; 
Never the little seed stops in its growing ; 
More and more richly the rose-heart keeps glowing, 
Till from its nourishing stem it is riven."- 



VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. — COMPOSITE VERSE. 293 

10. Lines Divisible. 
a abb 
Zdt " S£e, in his waywardness, How his fist doubles ; 

Thus pugilistieal, daring life's troubles : 
Strange, that the neophyte enters existence, 
In such an attitude, feigning resistance." — Hood. 

11 

a abb, &c. 

4 dc " Often had mountain-side, mountain-side, broad lake and stream, 

Gleamed on my waking thought, waking thought, crowded my dream." 

13. 

ababccdeed 
Sdt " Green be the graves where her martyrs are lying ! 

Zdc Shroudless and tombless they Slink to their rest, 

While o'er their ashes the starry fold flying 
Wrapt the proud eagle they roused from his nest. 
2 d Borne on her northern pine, 

Long o'er the foaming brine 
Spread her broad banner to storm and to sun ; 
Heav'n keep her ever free, 
Wide as o'er land and sea 
Floats the fair emblem her heroes have won." — Holmes. 

13. Lines Divisible. 
a b a b 

5 dt " Time, thou art ever in motion | On wheels of the days, years, and ages ; 

Restless as waves of the ocean, | when Eurus or Boreas rages." 

G. BrowrCs Gram, 
14. 
a abb 
7d "Out of the kingdom of Christ shall be gathered, by angel3 o'er Satan 
victorious, 
All that offendeth, that lieth, that faileth to honor his name ever glorious." 

lb. 
15. 

7 d c " Nimrod the hunter was mighty in hunting, and famed as the ruler of cities 
of yore : 
Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, from Shinar's fair region his 
name afar bore." — lb. 

5. COMPOSITE VERSE. 

Iambics and Anapests. 
1. 2. 

" Our fr£e flag is dancing " With a laugh and song we glide along, 

In the free mountain air, Across the fleeting snow ; 

And burnished arms are glancing, With friends beside, how swift we ride 

And warriors gathering there." On the beautiful track below." 

Bryant. Fields, 

Throughout this composite verse, show what feet compose each of the lines. 

3. 
" We buried him darkly, at dead of night, 
The sods with our bayonets turning ; 
By the struggling moonbeams' misty light, 
And the lantern dimly burning." — Wolfe. 

11 'Twas the battle-field ; and the cold, pale moon 
Looked down on the dead and dving ; 
And the wind passed o'er with a dirge and a wail, 
Where the young and brave were lying." — Landon. 



294 VERSIFICATION. SCANNING. COMPOSITE VERSE. 

4. 

" I know where the young May violet grows, • 
In its lone and lowly nook ; 
On its mossy bank, where the large tree throws 
Its broad dark boughs, in solemn repose, 
Far over the silver brook." — Bryant, 

5. 

" Thy heart was a river | Without a main — 
Would 1 had loved thee never, | Florence Vane." — Pendleton Cooke. 

6. 

M There was once a little fountain | That flowed away unseen 
In the bosom of a mountain, | Where man had nevei been." — G. Young, 

7. 
" Let us go, lassie, go to the braes of Balq uhither. 
Where the blae-berrie3 grow 'mong the bonny highland heather." — TannahiU, 

8. 

u O, the old, old clock, of the household stock, | Was the brightest thing and neatest ; 
The hands, though old, had a touch of gold, | And its chime rang still the sweetest." 

9. 

" It was many and many a year ago, | In a kingdom by the s£a, 
That a maiden there lived whom you may know, | By the name of Annabal Lee • 
And this maiden she lived with no other thought | Than to love and be loved 
by me." — Foe. 

All the Feet. 
10. 11. 

" Night sinks on the wave ; " Go where glory waits thee, 

Hollow gusts are signing ; But when fame elates thee, 

Sea-birds, to their cave, Oh ! still remember me," etc. 

Through the gloom are flying." — TIemans, Moore, 

12. 13. 

" ft is written on the rose, ■*.' The departed ! the departed ! 

fn its glory's full array, — They visit lis in dreams ; 

Kead what those buds disclose — And they glide above our memories, 

Passing away." — Hemans. Like shadows over streams." 

14, 15. 

" <5ft in the stilly nisrht, " Gentle and lovely form, 

Ere slumber's chain has bound What didst thou here ?" &c. 
me, 

Fond Memory brings the light 16* 

Of other days around me ; " Near the lake where drooped the willow, 

The smiles, the tears, Long time ago ; 

Of boyhood's years, Where the rock threw back the billow 

The words of love then spoken ; Brighter than snow ; 

The eyes that shone, Dwelt a maid beloved and cherished 

Now dim and gone, By high and low ; 

The cheerful hearts now broken." But with autumn's leaf she nerished, 

Moore, Long time ago." — Morris. 



"Many are the thoughts that come to me I fn my lonely musing; 
Or : Many are the thoughts that come to me | in my lonely musing ; 



17. 

e 1 f n my 

And they drift so strange and swift, | There 's no time for choosing 
Which to follow, for to leave any seems a losing." — G ranch, 

18. 
11 March — march — march ! Earth groans as they tread ! 
Each carries a skull; going down to the dead." 



VERSIFICATION. SCAXXIXG. COMPOSITE VERSE. 295 

19. 

" Know ye the laud where the cypress and myrtle 

Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime — 

Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, 
Now melt into softness, now madden to crime ? 

Know ye the land of the cedar and vine, 

AY here the flowers ever blossom, the beams ever shine," etc. — Byron. 

20. 

" Busk ye, busk ye, my bonny, bonny bride, 
Busk ye, busk ye, my winsome marrow ! 
Busk ye, busk ye, my bonny bride, 
And think no more on the braes of Yarrow.' 7 — Hamilton. 

21. 

" Wild r5ved an Indian girl, | Bright Alfarata, 
Where sweep the water's | Of tne blue Juniata- 
Swift as an antelope | Through the forest going, 
Loose were her jetty locks | In wavy tresses flowing." 

22. 
" Merrily swinging on brier and weed, 
Near to the nest of his little dame, 
Over the mountain-side or mead, 
Bobert of Lincoln is telling his name — 
B6b-o -link, B6b-o-link ; 
Spink, spank, spink ; 
Snug and safe is that nest of ours 
Hidden among the summer flowers. 
Chee, chee, chee!" — Bryant. 

This beautiful stanza is remarkable for a skillful combination of nearly all 
the feet. 

Many song3 are composite in their versification ; and odes are frequently not 
only composite in metre, but very irregular in the length and rhyming of the lines. 

Ex. — " 'Twas at the royal feast for Persia won 

By Philip's warlike son ; 
Aloft, in awful state, 
The godlike hero sate 

On his imperial throne : 
His valiant peers were placed around, 
Their brows with roses and with myrtle bound ; 
So should desert in arms be crowne'd. 
The lovely Thais by his side 
Sat like a blooming Eastern bride, 
In flower of youth "and beauty's pride. 
Happy, happy, happy pair ; 
Noiie but the brave, 
None but the brave, 
None but the brave deserves the fair," etc. — Dryden. 

See Dryden' s Ode on St. Cecilia's Day, Poe's Bells, Collins' s Ode on the Passions, and 
Gray's Odes. 

We sometimes meet with scraps of verse, formed chiefly with the design of 
being mechanically ingenious. 

" She drove her flock o ? er mountains, " Now, 0, now I needs must part, 

Bv grove, or rock, or fountains." 1 Parting though I absent mourn ; 

u Lightly and Irigluly breaks awav Absence can no joy impart, 

The morning from her mantle gray."— Byron. Joy once fled can ne'er return." 

This is line-rliyming or ivord-matcMn-g. 



296 



VERSIFICATION. FAULTY LINES. OBSERVATIONS. 



" Toward yon t owered castle, 
T ime-snid-rhyme-Yeriowned, 
L ightly I et thy waves then 
L eap the steepj I edges, 
P our in p urest silver 
P roudly, I oudly over, 
D anting d own with laughter, 
D ashing , flashing onward," etc. 
Lectures. 



' E vening draws her rosy veil 
L ovely o'er the western sky ; 
L ingerin^ clouds in beauty sail 
E re the night withdraws their dye. 
N ot a wavelet," etc. 

Such verse makes what is called an 

acrostic. 



This is line-rhyming and allitera- 
tion combined. See page 261. 

cur- f- w- 

A -sed -iend 
bles- fr- b- 



Such sharpness shows the sweetest friend, 
Such cuttings rather heal than rend, 
And such beginnings touch their endP 

d- dis- and p- 

ronght -eath -ease -ain. 

br- and 



ag- 



1 A cursed fiend wrought death, disease, and pain; 
A blessed friend brought breath and ease again." 
Such verses have been called task poetry. 



Faulty Lines. 



Point out the errors :- 



Faulty measure : " And the mountains will echo industry's glad song." 
" Low shall they lie while ages after ages flee, 
But their tomb shall stand a proud Thermopylae." 
Faulty rhyme : u Should every hopeful prospect fade on life's uncertain way ; 
Should every tie that love has made, be rudely torn away." 
"Another story all the town will tell; 
Phillis paints fair to look like an angel." 
Both : " And now, where shade and fountain meet, 

Herds of horses and cattle feed." 
Inelegant rhyme : " Above the woody vales, on high 

The eagle soars in majesty." 
Too many epithets : " Dark-rolling, high in eddying wreaths uprising, 

Awfully grand, majestically awful." 
Bad imagery : " Balmy zephyr, lightly flitting, 

Shade me with your azure wing." 
Faulty thoughts : " The smiles of joy, the tears of woe, 
Deceitful shine, deceitful flow — 

There 's nothing true but Heaven." — T. Moore. 
Smiles and tears may be deceitful ; but smiles of joy, and tears of woe, are 
never so. 

" Back from Miami, like a star he flies, 
Meigs to assist to hurry the supplies." — Fredoniad. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Poetry is closely allied to music, painting, statuary, and, indeed, to all the 
fine arts, of which it is the greatest. Its master passion is love, in the most en- 
larged sense of the term. In some poetry, thought predominates, as in Pope's 
Essay on Man ; in some, feeling, as in Wolfe's Burial of Sir John Moore ; in some 
the imagery, as in Moore's Lalla Rookh ; in some the music, as in songs, which 
often have but little to recommend them, except that they are good vehicles for 
pretty tunes or airs. In some poetry are happily combined all the excellencies. 

2. Poetry must be composed in accordance with the principles of correctness, 
and the traits of excellence, required in good prose ; that is, it must possess fun- 






VERSIFICATION. OBSERVATIONS. 297 

damentally all the good qualities of good prose, and all deviations must be such 
as make it poetry, and elevate it above prose, or such as impart to it some pe- 
culiar poetic excellence. 

3. Poetry should be composed in a lofty or ardent glow of spirit ; and a 
deficiency allowed in any of its essential qualities, should generally be atoned 
for by superior excellence in the other qualities. 

4. Poetry, in its feet, csesural pauses, rhymes, words, modes of. expression, 
arrangement of words, and licenses, should be in accordance with the usage 
of the best poets, or in accordance with the principles in which the art itself 
is founded. 

5. Such a mode of versification should always be chosen, as will best corre- 
spond with the sentiments of the intended poem. 

6. When a certain stanza, or a certain mode of versification, has been adopted, 
there should not be, throughout the same poem, any departure from it, either in 
the kind of feet, in the number of feet to the respective lines, or in the mode 
of arranging the lines that rhyme. Regularity is one of the chief beauties of 
poetry. 

Rhyming lines should not be allowed to come occasionally into blank verse ; 
nor should lines of blank verse be occasionally interspersed among rhyming 
lines. 

7. Rhymes should exactly correspond, or at least be allowable ; that is, corre- 
spond sufficiently to be authorized by the usage of good poets. 

8. When the merit of poetry is to depend on its structure as to quantity and 
accent alone, there must be regularity and great melody, or great excellence of 
thought, sentiment, and expression, to atone for the qualities that are wanting. 
Therefore most of our "Sapphics," "hexameters," and other fantastic imitations 
of what is found in ancient or in foreign languages, are hardly poetry according 
to the genius of our literature. 

9. Songs are not always so regular as other poems. To write a good song 
requires great art, unless the mind happens to be one of those rare and fine ones 
in which nature has combined the poet and the musical compositor. The best 
songs are written by learning the air, tune, or music first, and then setting it to 
words, or, rather, wedding it to words. 

10. In the composition of odes, the poet may, in general, pursue whatever 
variety of versification he pleases, in order that he may express a varying train 
of feelings in rhythm suiting the different parts, and thus produce a much richer 
and better harmony than unvaried regularity could afford. 

11. It seems to be a prevailing opinion among the people of western and of 
southern Asia, that poems — especially long ones — should be varied in versifica- 
tion, in order to produce the highest degree of pleasure. Scott, Byron, and 
Moore, have written many of their cantos thus, and successfully. The privilege, 
however, of using different feet promiscuously, or of varying the versification, 
can be allowed only to relieve monotony, or when such diversity will make the 
verse more expressive, or decidedly more agreeable than regular structure would 
make it. 

12. We sometimes find, even in shorter poems that are not odes, a sort of 
wayward irregularity in the length and rhyming of lines. The propriety of such 
structuro must, I suppose, be judged by the effect ; and if it proves to be really 
the inborn music of genius, of -course it is allowable. But perhaps the reader 
would rather hear a poet's opinion of it : — 

" He [Halleck] is familiar with those general rules and principles which are 
the basis of metrical harmony ; and his own unerring taste has taught him the 
exceptions which a proper attention to variety demands. He understands that 
the rivulet is made musical by obstructions in its channel. In no poet can be 
found passages which flow with more sweet and liquid smoothness ; but he 

13* 



298 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

knows very well that to make this smoothness perceived, and to prevent it from 
degenerating into monotony, occasional roughness must be interposed." — Bryant. 

13. Poets take unusual liberties with language, which are called poetic 
licenses. Greater liberty is allowed to them than to prose writers, chiefly in the 
choice of words, in the number of words, and in the arrangement of words. 
They. sometimes use antiquated words, spelling, or pronunciation; they often 
shorten words, sometimes lengthen them, and sometimes exchange them for 
kindred words or forms. They sometimes adopt obsolete or foreign idioms. 
They allow unusual ellipses, unusual pleonasms, and frequent and sometimes 
violent inversions. In general, any arrangement of words is allowed that will 
preserve the sense. 

14. Poetry may be faulty in the measure, in the rhyme, in the imagery, in 
the modes of expression, in the quality of the thoughts. But the worst and 
most common fault is that of making poetry out of gaudy language merely, or 
out of remembered poetic scraps and phrases. Such is most of the newspaper 
poetry, in which we have often been, obliged to see the waves of the Pacific 
rolling about in the Mississippi Valley ; rose-bushes blooming in January ; buds, 
violets, roses, juicy peaches, golden apples, and twinkling stars, all flourishing 
promiscuously together. We have also heard nightingales sing on the Ohio 
river, and larks where surely they never were. True poetry does not consist in 
a jumbling-together of the images, words, and poetic expressions of other poets, 
but in exact copies or daguerreotypes of interesting parts of the world of nature 
or the world of soul, as conceived with a warm heart, a sprightly intellect, and 
a glowing imagination. 

ie. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Discourse* is composed of propositions. 
A proposition is a subject combined with its predicate. 
The subject denotes that of which something is affirmed. 
The predicate denotes what is affirmed. 

Discourse may be divided into paragraphs. 

Paragraphs are composed of sentences. 

A sentence is a thought expressed by words. 

Sentences are either simple or compound. 

A simple sentence contains but one proposition. 

The sentence is still considered simple, if its nominative is a proposition ; but 
not so, if it contains a subordinate proposition in any other relation. Some gram- 
marians supply words so as to make with each finite verb a proposition or simple 
sentence ; but, whenever we can do so conveniently, it is best to regard a series of 
finite verbs as but one predicate. 

A compound sentence contains two or more propositions, or simple 
sentences. If one of the propositions modifies another, the sentence 
is, by some grammarians, called complex. 

A clause is any one of two or more propositions which together 
make a sentence. 

* Discourse, literally, refers to the run or flow of thought ; proposition means smne* 
thing placed before; paragraph, written beside'; sentence, thought; clause, what closes, 
or fills out; coordinate, ranking with ; subordinate, ranking under; analysis, separ- 
ating; synthesis, putting together. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 299 

Exercises, 

Point out the propositions or clauses, and tell whether the sentences are simple or 
compound : — 

The flowers are gemmed with dew. The maple on the hill-side has lost its 
bright green, and its leaves have the hue of gold. As you come near, they 
spring up, fly a little distance, and light again. Suspicion ever haunts the 
guilty mind. Hard things become easy by use ; and skill is gained by little 
and little. The weight of years has bent him, and the winter of age rests upon 
his head. He touched his harp, and nations heard entranced. The union is 
the vital sap of the tree ; if we reject the Constitution, we girdle the tree ; its 
leaves will wither, its branches drop off, and the mouldering trunk will be torn 
down by the tempest. The good times, when the fanner entertained the 
traveler without pay ; when he invited him to tarry, and join in the chase ; 
when Christmas and Fourth of July, were seasons of general festivity, — have 
passed away. '"Thy worldly hopes," said the hermit, "shall have faded, thy 
castles of ambition crumbled, and thy fiery passions subdued, ere thou hast 
reached the meridian of life." Read this Declaration at the head of the army, 
— every sword will be drawn from its scabbard, and the solemn vow uttered, to 
maintain it, or to perish on the bed of honor. A grain of musk will scent a 
room for twenty years, and will have lost but a small part of its weight. What 
costs nothing, is worth nothing. That he must fail, is certain. 'Tis liberty 
alone that gives the flowers of fleeting life their lustre and perfume. Go, and 
assist him, that the work may be finished. He who is false to God, is not true 
to man. Though thy slumbers may be deep, yet thy spirit shall not sleep ; 
there are shades that will not vanish, there are thoughts thou canst not banish. 
To dress, to visit, to gossip, and to thrum her piano, are the chief employments 
of the modern belle. 



Every proposition is either declarative, interrogative, imperative, 
or exclamatory. Every sentence is the same, or a composite of these. 

A declarative proposition expresses a declaration ; an interroga- 
tive proposition, a question ; an imperative proposition, a command ; 
and an exclamatory proposition, an exclamation. 

Ex. — " John rides that wild horse." " Does John ride that wild horse ?" 
" John, ride that wild horse." " John rides that wild horse !" An exclamatory 
sentence is merely a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence ut- 
tered chiefly to express the emotion of the speaker. 

Exercises. 

The propositions; and iclietlier declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamor 
tory, and umy : — 

A waving willow was bending over the fountain. Rise, and defend thyself. 
Shall I assist you ? How beautiful is yonder sunset ! If James has a hun- 
dred marbles, why does he never show us any of them ? Men may, I find, be 
honest, though they differ. Xow Twilight lets her curtain down, and pins it 
with a star. Green be the turf above thee, friend of my better days. What 
shall I say ? What a piece of work is man ! She is busy in the garden, 
among the posies. The entire fence is burned down ! Hear him ! hear him 1 
There can be no study without time ; and the mind must abide, and dwell upon 
things, or be always a stranger to the inside of them. The fly sat upon the 
axle-tree of the chariot- wheel, and said, " What a dust do I raise !" 

Every proposition is either independent or dependent. 



300 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

An independent proposition makes complete sense by itself. 

A dependent proposition depends on another for complete sense. 

The clause of a complex sentence on which the other clauses depend, is often 
called the principal or leading clause ; its subject and predicate, the principal or 
leading subject and predicate; and the dependent clauses, subordinate clauses. 

Exercises. 

The propositions ; and whether independent or dependent, and why : — 

The morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. The dew glistens when the 
sun rises. I would not enter on my list of friends the man who needlessly sets 
foot upon a worm. Stillest streams oft water fairest meadows; and the bird 
that flutters least, is longest on the wing. The path of sorrow leads to the land 
where sorrow is unknown. If the mind be curbed and humbled too much in 
children, if their spirits be abased and broken much by too strict a hand over 
them, — they lose all their vigor and industry. Come ye in peace here, or come 
ye in war ? In one place we saw a gang of sixty-five horses ; but the buffaloes 
seemed absolutely to cover the ground. "Come," says Puss, "without any 
more ado ; 'tis time to go to breakfast: cats don't live upon dialogues." 






Every proposition may be divided into the entire subject and the 
entire predicate. 

The entire subject must have one or more subject-nominatives to 
the same verb or verbs. 

The entire predicate must have one or more finite verbs agreeing 
with the same subject, which may be called the predicate-verbs. 

Hence both subjects and predicates are either simple or compound. 

The subject-nominative may be a word, a phrase, or an entire clause / the predi- 
cate-verb is simply a verb. 

Most grammarians call the entire subject the logical subject ; the entire predi- 
cate, the logical predicate ; the subject-nominative, the grammatical subject ; and 
the predicate- verb, the grammatical predicate. This mode of naming is not so 
simple as the one we have given. 

Exercises. 

The propositions ; the entire subjects, and then the subject-nominatives ; the entire 
predicates, and then the predicate-verbs : — ■ 

Men work. Most men work daily. The leaves rustle. The leaves rustle 
in the passing breeze. Leaves and flowers must perish. Flowers bloom and 
fade. Leaves and flowers flourish and decay. Poplars and alders ever quiv- 
ering played, and nodding cypress formed a fragrant shade. In youth alone, 
unhappy mortals live ; but, ah ! the mighty gift is fugitive. The same errors 
run through all families in which there is wealth enough to afford that their 
sons may be good for nothing. Depart. In concert act, like modern friends, 
since one can serve the other's ends. That it is our duty to be kind and 
obliging, admits of no doubt. The division and quavering which please so 
much in music, have a resemblance to the glittering of light, as when the moon- 
beams play upon the water. It is often the fault of parents, guardians, and 
teachers, that so many persons miscarry. (Here either " It" or the clause " that 
so many," etc., may be considered the subject of " is," and the other term may 
be parsed as agreeing with the subject in case.) It is hardly practicable for the 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 301 

human mind to obtain a clear and familiar knowledge of an art, without illustra- 
tions and exemplifications. Ah me ! the blooming pride of May, and that of 
beauty, are but one. 



The parts into which sentences are divided in analysis, are called 
elements. Subject-nominatives and predicate-verbs are the principal 
elements ; and they may be modified by words, phrases, or clauses. 

A part that modifies another, adds something to its meaning, or takes away 
something. 

What modifies, is either explanatory or restrictive. 

Ex. — "The town lay at the foot of a hill, which we climbed.'''' " The town lay at 
the foot of the hill which we climbed." 

Whatever modifies a substantive, is an adjective element. 

Ex — " Solomon's Temple." What temple ? " David, the Icing and psalmist" 
What David? ■ "The land of palms" What land? "A hill crowned with ma- 
jestic trees" What kind of hill? "A proposition to sell the farm? 1 What prop- 
osition ? " The store which is on the comer." What store ? "A request that you 
will go with us." What kind of request ? 

What modifies, may itself be modified. 

A noun may be modified — - 

1. By an article. " The man is intelligent." 

2. By an adjective. "A beautiful rose;" " A rose, red and beautiful." 

3. By a possessive. "John's horse ;" "My slate." 

4. By an appositive. " John the saddler ;" " The poet Milton." 

5. By a participle, with what belongs to it. "A law relating to taxes. 11 

6. By an infinitive, with what belongs to it. u A path to guide us." 
1. By an adjunct. "A man of wisdom." 

8. By a clause. a The willow that stands by the spring ;" " A request that 
you will go with us to-morrow." 

A pronoun may be modified in the same ways, except not by a possessive. 
A modified word has frequently several modifications at once. 

Exercises. 

The nouns and pronouns, and by what they are modified : — 

A dewy rose. The land of oranges. Lurking evils. Evils lurking near. 
Evils that lurk near. A house situated on the river. An opportunity to 
study. The sun's beams. Milton the poet. The deer which ran out of the 
field, and which I shot. A bright morning, fresh aud balmy, that refreshed us 
all. The calumet was produced, and the two forlorn powers smoked eternal 
friendship between themselves, and vengeance upon their common spoilers, the 
Crows. The silence of the night ; the calmness of the sea ; the lambent radi- 
ance of the moon, trembling on the surface of the waves ; and the deep azure of 
the sky, spangled with a thousand stars, — concurred to heighten the beauty of the 
scene. With loss of Eden, till one greater man restore us, and regain the bliss- 
ful seat. Numerous small lakes lie inland, round which, on beaten trails, roam 
herds of red deer. Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright, the bridal of the earth 
and sky. 



302 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Whatever modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, or may be 
given in answer to an interrogative adverb, or as the complement of 
a predicate, is an adverbial element. 

Ex. — "The house was sold yesterday.'''' When? " The house contains .much 
furniture.'''' Contains what ? " The house was a mere cabin.'''' Was what? " The 
house fell, crushing its inmates.'''' Fell how?' "The house was sold to pay the 
owner's debts. 1 '' Why? "The house was sold because the owner was in debt.'*'' 
Why? 

A modified verb may be a finite verb, a participle, or an infinitive. 

A verb may be modified— 

1. By an object. " Men build houses." 

2. By a predicate-nominative. " John has become a farmer.'''' 

3. By an adjective. " To be wise ;" " James IS idle" 

4. By an adverb. "The horse ran fast." 

5. By a participle-^. " The stone rolled thundering down the hill." 

6. By an infinitive-^. " I have concluded to remain with you." 

7. By an adjunct. "Apples grow on trees." 

8. By a clause. " She thinks he is rich ;" " He studies that he may learn." t 

Exercises. 

The verbs, and by what modified : — 

A light beaming brightly. He writes with care. Cast not pearls before 
swine. He became a partner. She is industrious. I intend to go. I be- 
lieve he will succeed, when he makes a vigorous effort. Among the flowering 
vines is one deserving of particular notice. Bach flower is composed of six 
leaves about three inches in length, of beautiful crimson, the inside spotted with 
white. Its leaves of fine green are oval, and disposed by threes. This plant 
grows upon the trees without attaching itself to them ; when it has reached the 
topmost branches, it descends perpendicularly, and, as it continues to grow, ex- 
tends from tree to tree, until its various stalks interlace the grove like the rig- 
ging of a ship. Nature from the storm shines out afresh. Not even a philoso- 
pher can endure the toothache patiently. There never yet were hearts or 
skies, clouds might not wander through. Chaucer said, " If a man's soul is in 
his pocket, he should be punished there." 



An adjective may be modified — 

1. By an adverb. " She is foolishly velOUV." 

2. By an infinitive. " The fruit is GOOD to eat." 

3. By an adjunct. " He is careful of his books." 

Exercises. 

The adjectives, and by what modified : — 

She was uncommonly beautiful. He is poor in money, but rich in knowl- 
edge. Be quick to hear, but slow to speak. The visions of my youth are 
past — too bright, too beautiful to last. How dear to my heart are the scenes of 
my childhood ! That father, faint in death below, his voice no longer heard. 
Wise in council and brave in war, he soon became the most successful leader. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 303 

An adverb may be modified — 

1. By an adverb. " The horse ran very fast." 

2. By an adjunct " He has acted inconsistently with his professions." 

Exercise s. 

The adverbs, and by what modified : — 

It is very badly done. She studies most diligently. You can not come 
too soon. He has written agreeably to your directions. 



When a dependent clanse is abridged into a phrase, having a 

nominative absolute, the phrase retains the modifying sense of the 

clause. 

Some grammarians call such also independent phrases, though perhaps need- 
lessly. 

Exercises. 

The absolute phrases, and what they modify : — 

My trunk being packed, I sent for a carriage. (Sent why or when ?) The 
sun having set, we returned home. His father having been imprisoned, he went 
to rescue him. Along he sauntered, his musing fancies absorbing his whole 
soul. 

Nominatives independent, or the phrases containing them, and 
interjections, are independent elements. 

Exercises. 

Point out the independent words or phrases : — 

Liberty ! can man resign thee, once having felt thy glorious flame ! Weep 
on the rocks of roaring winds, maid of Inistore ! Milan ! the golden bells 
which oft at eve so sweetly tolled i Alas, alas ! fair Ines, she's gone into the 
West. The land of the heart is the land of the West ; oho boys ! oho boys ! 
oho! Hist, Romeo, hist. My stars! what a fish! Ha, ha, ha! a fine 
gentleman, truly. 

♦ 

Connecting ivoi'ds are conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, and 
relative pronouns. Sometimes phrases. 

Sometimes connectives are omitted, or the connection is sufficiently 
obvious by the position of the parts. 

Exercises. 

Point out the connectives, tell of what kind, and what they connect : — 
The sun has set, and the moon and stars begin to appear. He took the 
horse which I had brought. When I behold a fashionable table set out, I fancy 
that gouts, fevers, and lethargies, lie in ambush among the dishes. He thai 
knows not how to suffer, has no greatness of soul. Though deep, yet clear ; 
though gentle, yet not dull. The moment I touched it, down it fell. Tl 
deeper the water, the smoother it flows. (Connected by the correlative sense • •:• 
. the clauses.) A corporation, whether commercial or proprietary, is perhaps tii r j 
worst of sovereigns. Gain is the object which leads to the formation of these 
companies, and which constitutes the interest most likely to be fostered. Where 
an individual is the sovereign, there is room for appeal to magnanimity, to be- 



304 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

nevolence, to the love of glory ; but corporate ambition is deaf to mercy and in- 
sensible to shame. To be happy is not only to be free from the pains and dis- 
eases of the body, but also from the cares and diseases of the mind. 

u Who steals my purse, steals trash ; 'tis something, nothing ; 
'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands : 
But he who niches from me my good name, 
Robs me of that which not enriches him, 
And makes me poor indeed I" 



Propositions are sometimes elliptical or inverted. 
Exercises. 

Point out the elliptical parts , supply the omitted words, and restore the logical ar- 
rangement : — 

And jokes went round, and careless chat. No mate, no comrade, Lucy 
knew. Oh, how damp, and dark, and cold! "Then why do'nt you go," 
said I. Pride costs us more than hunger, thirst, and cold. The woman 
(strange circumstance!) remained 'obstinately silent. Out of debt; out ol 
danger. On the cool and shady hills, coffee shrubs and tamarinds grow. Alas 
for love, if thou wert all, and naught beyond, earth ! Of all the thousand stirs 
not one. " Sir, I can not. — What, my lord ? — Make you a wholesome answer." 

First, Fear his hand, its skill to try, 

Amid the chords bewildered laid ; 
And back recoiled, he knew not why, 

E'en at the sound himself had made. 



Sentences, propositions, and phrases, may be analyzed according 
to the following 

Formulas. 

A sentence, and why; simple or compound, and why; declarative, interrogative^ 
imperative, exclamatory, or a composite of, and why. 

is a phrase ; the chief word . modified bv 

an independent phrase ; the independent substantive ' J 

—is the entire *&£ ; the ^SSSS^ iS ~ ' ^^ * ~ 

— is the entire gfck ; the ^^^^W, connected by-, and modified by-, 

ANALYSIS EXEMPLIFIED. 

Simple Sentences Analyzed. 

" Sin degrades." 

This is a sentence, it is a thought expressed by words ; simple, it contains but 
one proposition ; declarative, it expresses a declaration. 

Sin is the subject, because it denotes that of which something is affirmed ; and 
degrades is the predicate, because it denotes what is affirmed of sin. Sin is also the 
subject-nominative ; and degrades, the predicate-verb. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 305 

" My friend, were these houses and lands purchased and improved 
by our old senator, David Barton ?" 

This is a sentence, it is a collection of words making complete sense ; simple, it 
contains but one proposition, or but one subject and one predicate ; interrogative , 
it asks a question. 

My friend is an independent phrase, because it has no grammatical connection 
with the rest of the sentence. Friend is the principal word, and it is modified or 
limited by the possessive My. 

The phrase these houses and lands, is the subject, because it denotes that of which 
something is affirmed. 

The phrase were purchased and improved by our old senator, David Barton, is the 
predicate, because it denotes what is affirmed of the subject. 

Houses and lands are the subject-nominatives, connected by the word and, and 
modified by the adjective these. 

Were purchased and [ivere'] improved are the predicate-verbs, connected by and 
and modified by the phrase by our old senator, David Barton. Our old senator is 
modified by David Barton ; old senator is modified or limited by the possessive 
our ; and senator is modified by old. 

Or thus : Was is the copula ; purchased and improved are the attributives, modi- 
fied by (as before). 

Compound Sentences Analyzed. 

" A man who saves the fragments of time, will accomplish much 
in the course of his life." 

This is a sentence, it is a complete thought expressed by words ; compound, it 
contains more propositions than one ; (or, complex, it contains two propositions, of 
which one modifies the other ;) declarative, it expresses a declaration. 

A man who saves the fragments of time, is the entire subject of the principal 
clause, because it denotes that of which something is affirmed ; and will accomplish 
much in the course of his life, is the entire predicate, because it denotes what is af- 
firmed of the subject. Man is the subject-nominative ; and it is modified by the 
article A, and the clause who saves the fragments of time : will accomplish is the 
predicate-verb, and is modified by the object much and the adjunct in the course 
of his life. 

Who saves the fragments of time, is a proposition connected to man, by the rela- 
tive who, as a subordinate clause performing the office of an adjective. 

Who is the entire subject and the subject-nominative : saves the fragments of 
time, is the entire predicate ; saves is the predicate-verb, and is modified by its ob- 
ject fragments, which is itself modified by the article the and the adjunct of time. 



" What pleases the palate, is not always good for the constitu- 
tion." 

This is a sentence, it is a collection of words making complete sense ; compound, 
consisting of two propositions ; (or, complex, it contains two propositions of which 
one modifies the other ;) declarative, it expresses a declaration. 

u What is equivalent to that which. What, or that which, pleases the palate, is the 
entire subject of the principal clause ; and is not always good for the constitution, is 



306 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

the entire predicate. That is the subject-nominative, and is modified by the clause 
which pleases the 'palate; is is the predicate-verb, and is modified by the adjective 
good, which is itself modified by the adjunct for the constitution and the adverb 
always, and always is modified by the adverb not. 

Which pleases the palate, is a proposition connected to that, by the relative which, 
as a subordinate clause performing the office of an adjective. 

Which is the entire subject and the subject-nominative ; pleases the palate, is the 
entire predicate ; pleases is the predicate-verb, modified by the object palate, which 
is itself modified by the. 

[" What causes mildew, has not yet been ascertained with cer- 
tainty." 

This is a simple sentence, having the incorporated clause What causes mildew 
as the entire subject and the subject-nominative. Has not yet been ascertained 
with certainty, is the entire predicate, etc. 

What causes mildew, is a subordinate clause incorporated into the sentence as 
a substantive in the nominative case. What is the entire subject and the subject- 
nominative, etc.] 

" My son, if thou wouldst receive rny words, and hide my com- 
mandments with thee, so that thou mayst gain wisdom ; yea, if thou 
wouldst seek it as silver, and search for it as hidden treasure, — then 
live in the fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of God." 

This is a sentence, it is a collection of words making complete sense ; compound, 
it consists of several propositions ; a composite of declarative, or conditional de- 
clarative, and imperative clauses, but rather an imperative sentence, for its chiei 
aim is to express a command or an exhortation. 

"My son, 11 — 
This is an independent phrase, because it has no grammatical connection with 
the rest of the sentence, etc. (Proceed as before.) 

"If thou wouldst receive my words, and hide my commandments with thee, 11 — 
This is a proposition connected as a dependent clause, by the conjunction if, to 
the last clause of the sentence, etc. (Analyze these clauses in the same way as the 
clauses and sentences above were analyzed.) 

" So that thou mayest gain wisdom ;" — 

This is a clause dependent on the clause preceding it, to which it is connected 
by so that, etc. 

"Yea, if thou wouldst seek it as silver, and search for it as hidden treasure; 11 — 
This is a clause coordinate with the member preceding it, to which it is con- 
nected by the emphatic yea ; and dependent on the last clause of the sentence, to 
which it is connected by if. 

"As silver, 11 — "As for hidden treasure ;" — 

As silver is put for as you would seek for silver, and is therefore a clause con- 
nected to the preceding predicate by as as a subordinate clause, performing the 
offico of an adverb of manner, etc. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 307 

"Then live in the fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of God." 
This is the principal or independent clause, connected by then to the rest of the 
sentence. Thou, understood, is the entire subject and the subject-nominative, etc. 



Note. — Long sentences are generally most easily analyzed, by commencing at 
the beginning of the sentence, and taking not more than one clause, independent 
word or phrase, at a time, and proceeding thus until the entire sentence is ex- 
hausted. It is generally better to defer dependent clauses, till their principal 
clauses are analyzed. 

" There is strong reason to suspect that some able Whig poli- 
ticians, who thought it dangerous to relax, at that moment, the 
laws against political offenses, but who could not, without incur- 
ring the charge of inconsistency, declare themselves adverse to 
relaxation, had conceived a hope that they might, by fomenting the 
dispute about the court of the lord high steward, defer for at least 
a year the passing of a bill which they disliked, and yet could 
not decently oppose." — Macaulay. 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence, or a compound declarative 
sentence of which some of the clauses are dependent. There is strong reason to 
suspect, is the principal clause, of which strong reason to suspect, is the entire sub- 
ject; and There is, the entire predicate ; reason is the subject-nominative, modified 
by the adjective strong, and the infinitive to suspect performing the office of an ad- 
jective ; is is the predicate-verb, modified by There. 

That some able Whig politicians had conceived a hope, is the next simple declara- 
tive clause, performing the office of a substantive in the objective case governed by 
to suspect, to which it is connected by that. Some able Whig politicians, is the entire 
subject ; and had conceived a hope, is the entire predicate : politicians is the subject 
nominative, modified by the adjectives some, able, and Whig ; and had conceived is 
the predicate-verb, modified by the object hope, which is itself modified by the 
article a. 

Who thougM it dangerous, etc., (read to but,) is a subordinate relative clause, 
connected to politicians by who, and performing the office of an adjective. Who is 
the entire subject and subject-nominative ; thought it dangerous, etc., is the entire 
predicate, of which thought is the predicate-verb, modified by the object it, which is 
modified by dangerous, and the appositive to relax, etc., of which to relax is modi- 
fied by the adjunct at that moment, an adverbial element whose principal word is 
moment, modified by that, and connected to the verb by at ; to relax is further modi- 
fied by the object the laws, and laws is modified by the adjunct against political 
offences, performing the office of an adjective. 

But who could not, without, etc. (to had), is a relative clause also modifying 
politicians, and connected as a coordinate clause to the clause before it, by the 
adversative conjunction but. Who is the entire subject and the subject-nominative ; 
could not, without incurring, etc., is the entire predicate, of which could declare is 
the predicate-verb, modified by the negative adverb not, the adverbial adjunct 
without incurring the charge of inconsistency, the object themselves, which is modi- 
fied by the adjective adverse, and adverse is modified by the adverbial adjunct to 
relaxation. 



308 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

That they might, etc. (to which), is the next simple clause,— dependent, con- 
nected to hope by that, and performing the office of an adjective. They is the entire 
subject and the subject-nominative ; might defer, etc., is the entire predicate, of 
which might defer is the predicate-verb, modified by the adverbial elements by fo- 
menting the dispute about the court of the lord high steward (means), for a year (time), 
and the objective element the passing of a bill ; fomenting is joined to might defer by 
by and modified by dispute, dispute is modified by the and about the court, court is 
joined to dispute by about and modified by the and of the lord high steward, lard is 
joined to court by of and modified by the and the appositive high steward ; for a 
year is modified by the adverbial phrase at least ; passing is modified by the and 
the adjunct of a bill. 

Which they disliked, etc. (to the end), is a relative clause, — declarative, depend- 
ent, connected to bill by lohich, and performing the office of an adjective. They is 
the entire subject and the subject-nominative, disliked and could oppose are the 
predicate-verbs, connected by and yet, and modified, both, by the objective which,, 
and the latter verb by the adverb decently, which is itself modified by the nega- 
tive adverb not. 

The sentence consists of six clauses, very finely bound together, of which the 
subject of the principal clause is branched out into a cluster of dependent clauses. 
— The student will seldom find a sentence more difficult to analyze. 



Paragraphs or sentences may be briefly analyzed by simply 
pointing out the clauses or propositions in their logical order. 
Parsing, also, may be much abridged. 

Ex. — " Man hath his daily work of body or mind 
Appointed, which declares his dignity, 
And the regard of Heaven on all his ways ; 
While other animals inactive range, 
And of their doings G-od takes no account." — Milton. 
Man hath his daily work of body or mind appointed. 
Which declares his dignity, and the regard of Heaven on all his ways. 
While other animals range inactive. 
And God takes no account of their doings. 
Man is a common noun ? in the nominative case to hath; hath is an irregular 
transitive verb agreeing with Man ; his is a personal pronoun, relating to Man as 
its antecedent, and possessing work, etc. 



EXERCISES. 



The small capitals and the Italics show the nominatives and the finite verbs, or the 
principal elements. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

Stars shine. 

The sun rises. 

Woodman, spare that tree. 

Rome was not built in one day. 

The world is bright before thee. 

The spreading orange waves a load of gold. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 309 

The violet has mourned above their graves a hundred springs. 
In slumbers of midnight the sailor-boy lay. 
No man forgets his original trade. 
Violent fires burn out themselves. 
Out of every grove the voice of pleasure warbles. 
In darkness dissolves the gay frost-work of bliss. 
Days, months, years, and ages, shall circle away, 
And still the vast waters above thee shall roll. 
Death saw the floweret to the desert given, 
Plucked it from earth, and planted it in heaven. 
My hopes, — their starry light is gone. 
The mellow eye is gliding 
Serenely down the west. 
Use books as bees use flowers. 
To hope and strive is the way to thrive. 
The lapse to indolence is soft and imperceptible ; but the return 
to diligence is difficult. 

How poor are they that have not patience ! 
What wound did ever heal but by degrees ? 
Large streams from little fountains flow. 
Now bright the sunbeam on St. Lawrence smiles, 
Her million lilies, and her thousand isles. 
On thy fair bosom, silver lake, 

The wild swan spreads his snowy sail ; 
And round his breast the ripples break, 
As down he bears before the gale. 
The rose had been washed, just washed in a shower, 

Which Mary to Anna conveyed ; 
A delicate moisture encumbered the flower, 
And weighed down its beautiful head. 

Here rests his head, upon the lap of earth, 
A youth to fortune and to fame unknown. 
Much must be borne which it is hard to bear. 
The diamond 's a jewel, on earth though it lie ; 
And dust still is dust, when His blown to the sky. 
If this great western sun be struck out of the firmament, at what 
other fountain shall the lamp of liberty hereafter be lighted? 
Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne, 
In rayless majesty, now stretches forth 
Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. 
Sadly and slowly they climb the distant mountains, and read 
their doom in the setting sun. 



310 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk was dreaming of the hour 

When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. 

What in me is dark, illumine ; what is low, raise and support. 

For contemplation he, and valor, formed ; 
For virtue she, and sweet attractive grace. 

Eternal Hope ! when yonder spheres sublime 
Pealed their first notes to sound the march of Time, 
Thy joyous youth began, but not to fade : 
When all the sister planets have decayed, 
When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow, 
And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below, 
Thou, undismayed, shalt o'er the ruins smile, 
And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile. 



SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION. 

[This section is designed for reference only.] 

^ A perfect or entirely satisfactory analysis of speech has never been made ; and 
it is perhaps even less possible than a perfect analysis of the material world. Yet 
our knowledge of either may be much extended by such analyses as can be made. 

Analysis is the separating of a whole into its parts. 

Synthesis is the combining of parts into a whole. 

The analysis of sentences with reference to the entire thoughts 
expressed by them, is called Analysis ; and the analysis of words 
with reference to their ideas in the structure of sentences, is called 
Parsing. 

Language is any series of words or signs by which we express 
or communicate thoughts. 

Discourse is the embodying of thought with language, or it is 
some train of thought embodied in language. Discourse is to 
language what buildings are to building-materials. 

Discourse, according to its subject-matter, to the manner in which 
is developed, or to the end in view, has been variously divided. The 
most obvious division is into prose and poetry. 

The chief divisions of prose are science, philosophy, history, trav- 
els, novels, essays, addresses, critiques, and letters. 

The chief divisions of poetry are- epic poetry, dramatic poetry 
{tragedies and comedies), lyric poetry (odes, songs, and sonnets), sat- 
ires, epistles, epigrams, and epitaphs. 

Discourse is either direct, indirect, or representative. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 311 

Direct discourse represents the speaker as giving his own thoughts 
in his own language. 

Indirect discourse represents the speaker as relating in his own 
language what he ascribes to another. 

Representative discourse, or dialogue, enables the author to rep- 
resent, by assumed characters, either his own sentiments or those of 
others. 

The great advantage of representative discourse, and also to some extent 
of indirect discourse, is, that it enables the author to conceal or disguise his own 
opinions. Who shall say, for instance, to what extent Shakespeare is morally or 
critically responsible for his writings ? See also Dr. Franklin's account of what 
a wise old Indian chief thought of the whites. 

Perhaps the most rational division of discourse is the following : — 

a. That which depends chiefly on place, and is termed description. 

b. That which depends chiefly on time, and is termed narrative. 

c. That which aims to unfold or exhibit the nature or rationale 
of things, and prevails in works of science and philosophy. 

d. What accompanies each of these for the sake of illustration, 
or to render the speaker's meaning more intelligible or impressive. 

Any of the first three mentioned, may predominate in the dis- 
course, but they are not unfrequently combined. 

1. Discourse may usually be divided into paragraphs. 

2. A paragraph is a portion distinct in form and sense. Para- 
graphs often consist of two or more sentences. 

3. A sentence is a thought expressed by words. A sentence must 
comprise words sufficient to be of itself complete in sense and gram- 
matical construction. (A nominative in one sentence, for instance, 
can never be the subject of a verb in another sentence.) 

The beginning of a sentence is denoted by a capital letter ; and the end, usuaUy by a 
period, an interrogation-point, or an exclamation-point. 

4. Sentences are either simple or compound ; and their consti- 
tuent parts are words, phrases, and propositio?is. 

5. A proposition may be either declarative, imperative, interroga- 
tive, or exclamatory ; actual or contingent ; positive or negative ; in- 
dependent, principal, subordinate, or coordinate ; it comprises but 
one subject and one predicate, though either or both may be com- 
pound or modified to any extent whatsoever. 

6. A phrase consists of two or more words rightly put together, 
but not making a proposition ; and it generally depends on some- 
thing else for complete sense. 

7. A word without grammatical relation to other words, or a 
phrase in which such a word is the principal one, is said to be 
independent ; and, if it implies an address, it is sometimes called a 
compellative, — a word that means forcing attention. 



312 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

8. A simple sentence contains but one proposition ; a compound 
sentence, two or more propositions, termed clauses, 

9. Two or more clauses, forming a distinct part of a compound 
sentence, may be termed a member ; and so may the remaining 
words, or group of clauses. 

10. A member or a sentence that has a dependent clause, may be 
termed a complex member or sentence. 

11. A sentence not making sense before it is read to the end, is 
said to be compact or periodic in structure ; a sentence making sense 
before it is read to the end, is said to be loose in structure ; and 
parts too closely connected to admit even the comma, may be said 
to be close or restrictive in structure. 

12. The distinct, consecutive sentences of discourse are coor- 
dinate ; that is, they stand on an equal footing, or are not conceived 
as modifying one another. 

13. The words, phrases, or clauses of sentences, may be viewed 
as principal, subordinate, or coordinate parts. 

14. Principal parts are modified; subordinate or dependent parts 
modify ; coordinate parts are generally the same in kind, and do not 
modify one another — or they perform the same office, are construed 
alike, and have a common dependence on something else. 

15. Coordinate parts are generally construed in pairs or series, 
and connected by such words as and, or, but. 

16. A phrase without a connective, or word to show its depend- 
ence, may be said to be connected by its position; a sentence or 
clause, by simple succession ; and a clause so intimately connected 
with a finite verb — (as a subject-nominative, predicate-nominative, 
objective) — that it must be read with it in order to analyze the 
clause, may be said to be incorporated into the sentence. 

17. The compellative, subject, or predicate, taken with its modifi- 
cations, grammarians usually call the logical compellative, subject, 
or predicate ; without them, the grammatical compellative, subject, 
or predicate. 

Every proposition or clause should be separated, as soon as possible, into its 
grammatical subject and predicate ; and all the dependent parts should then be 
referred, according to the sense, to the one or to the other. 

18. The syntax of sentences is best considered under four heads ; 
relation, government, agreement, and position. 

19. The relation of words is their reference to one another ac- 
cording to the sense. 

20. Government is the power which one word has over another 
in determining its case, person, number, or some other property. 

21 Agreement is the correspondence of one word with another 
in case, person, number, or some other property. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 313 

22. Position refers to the place which a word occupies in refer- 
ence to other words. 

THE SIX ELEMENTS. 

23. Discourse may be most conveniently analyzed, by resolving 
it into six elements ; two principal elements, two modifying ele- 
ments, a connecting element, and an independent element. 

24. The two principal elements are the subject-nominatives and 
the predicate-verbs ; both of which are easily distinguished, by their 
form and sense, from the other parts. 

25. Subject-nominatives may even be clauses, but predicate -verbs 
can never be clauses. 

26. The modifying elements are either adjective elements or ad- 
verbial elements. 

27. Any word, phrase, or clause, that modifies a substantive, is 
an adjective element. It shows of what kind or nature the object is. 

28. Any word, phrase, or clause, that modifies a verb, (participle, 
infinitive,) adjective, adverb, or entire predicate, is an adverbial ele- 
ment. It generally shows the place, time, manner, degree, condition, 
cause, effect, purpose, reason, inference, consequence, object, kind, 
quality, respect wherein, etc., or expresses affirmation or negation. 
Its chief use is, to make with the predicate-verb the predicate. 
For the sake of greater precision, the objective elements may be dis- 
criminated, as such, from the other adverbial elements. 

29. The connecting elements are the conjunctions, the preposi- 
tions, some adverbs, and the relative pronouns. Connectives may 
perform, additionally, some office in the parts to which they be- 
long ; they may be expressed or omitted ; they may be used singly 
or in pairs ; they may consist of one word each, or of a phrase. 

30. The independent element may be a substantive denoting what 
is addressed, or what is the mere subject of thought; or it may be 
an interjection ; or it may be something that represents an entire 
sentence, or stands as the fragment of a sentence. 

31. A part used singly, is called a simple element ; a pair or 
series of parts is called a compound element ; and a part that is 
modified by another, makes with it a complex element. 

32. What is inverted or elliptical, should generally be analyzed 
as if it stood in its logical order or fullness. 

33. It is sometimes not easy to determine whether an adjunct, an adjective, or 
an adjective phrase ; a participle or a participial phrase ; an infinitive or an infini- 
tive phrase, — should be referred to the subject or to the predicate. Consider 
carefuUy what constitutes the whole of that of which the affirmation is made ; 
next consider what constitutes the whole of that which is strictly affirmed. 
"When even this mode of judging is inadequate, it will probably be a matter of 
little consequence, to which part the modification is referred. 

14 



314 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION. 

1. Read a paragraph, and be sure that you clearly and fully comprehend it. 
If it is expressed not in the most ordinary manner, show how it has been raised 
(by equivalent expressions, arrangement, ellipsis, repetition, expansion, &a, 
figures, versification. — See pp. 258-98,) from the plain, logical sense and order, 
to the rhetorical. Next show how the sense has been brought out to the best 
advantage by the aid of punctuation and of capital letters. 

2. Read the first sentence. Is it simple or compound ? Is it declarative, inter- 
rogative, imperative, exclamatory, or a composite of these ? consisting of what 
members, and how connected ? Find the compilative ; find the principal clause 
by considering carefully what it was that was chiefly to be said ; (in exclama- 
tory, imperative, or interrogative sentences, the principal clause is generally 
more easily found by imagining them to be declarative ;) and dispose of all the 
rest of the sentence as adverbicd or adjective modifications. Every clause that can 
not be treated as a modifying element, must be considered a coordinate clause ; 
and when two clauses so modify each other that it can not be told which is the 
principal, the two may be treated as mutually dependent, or as correlative. 

Begin with the distinct clauses or independent phrases ; take not more than 
is sufficient for one analysis; invert parts, if necessary, and supply whatever 
words are needed ; and then state what kind of clause it is, connected by what 
— (word, simple succession, incorporated into the sentence) — to what, as a co- 
ordinate or as a subordinate element ; and, if subordinate, whether it performs 
the office of a substantive, an adjective, or an adverb. 

3. Next proceed according to the Formulas on p. 304. 

4. Analyze the sub -parts ; then take the next clause, and proceed in a similar 
manner, and so on until the sentence is exhausted. A series of finite verbs, 
however long or modified, should generally be treated as one predicate, if not 
parted by a nominative expressed. By doing so, the process of analysis will be 
much simplified. The same remark applies to a series of nominatives. When 
the sentence is analyzed, parse the words according to the Formulas heretofore 
given ; that is, mention the part of speech, the kind, the properties, the relations 
to other words, the Rule. This is the analysis of words, viewed as constructive 
elements of sentences. They may, after they are parsed, be further analyzed and 
described as follows : — 

Tell whether primitive, derivative, or compound; from what derived, of 
what compounded; the radical, the prefix, the suffix, their meaning, euphonic 
changes ; the primary meaning, and thence by what figure or figures the mean- 
ing of the word as used in the paragraph before you ; mention the conjugates ; 
the synonyms, and how it differs from them; tell, if compound, why it is 
hyphened or consolidated. Is the word the best the author could have used ? 

5. Tell whether a monosyllable, dissyllable, etc. ; which syllable has the chief 
accent, and which the weaker; whether the word is of Saxon origin, of Latin, 
Greek, French, etc. ; whether it is harsh, soft, imitative, familiar, uncommon, 
popular, technical, etc. 

6. Terse, as such, may be analyzed and described thus : — 

Say that it is verse, and why ; tell whether it is blank verse or rhyming verse, 
and why ; whether composed in couplets, triplets, or stanzas ; how many lines 
to the stanza, how they rhyme together, and — if it has a name — what is the 
stanza called ; of how many and what feet does each line consist, and to what 
does it rhyme, witli what sort of rhyme ; what licenses or deviations. 

When any word or expression of such a mongrel or peculiar nature occurs, 
that no principle of grammar applies directly to it, it will be sufficient simply to 
show its use in the sentence ; that is, its meaning, and its relation to the other 
parts. 



PUNCTUATION. 315 

17 PUNCTUATION.* 

Punctuation is the art of applying certain points or marks to 
literary composition, in such a way as will present the sense and de- 
livery "to the best advantage. The chief use of points is to denote 
pauses. 

The division into sentences, and parts of sentences, is made chiefly according 
to the grammatical sense, though it is sometimes influenced by delivery; as, 
u Approach, and behold, while I lift from his sepulchre its covering!" — Dr. 
Nott. 

It may be well to remark, at the outset, that punctuation must necessarily 
vary with all the varieties of style; and that sometimes the same paragraph may 
be differently punctuated, and correctly too, according to the view that is taken 
of it. Indeed, it seems that capitals, Italics, and punctuation-marks generally, 
have acquired, like words, various meanings ; so that we are at liberty to use 
them, and do use them, much in the same way as we use words: every person 
presenting his thoughts by their aid, of course with more or less advantage, ac- 
cording to his knowledge of their various meanings and uses. Uniformity, bow- 
ever, is a primary law; and the entire subject of punctuation is certainly some- 
thing more than " a matter of taste." ^Ve should at least be careful not to use 
any notation unnecessarily, not to use one notation where a different one would 
express the sense better, and not to use the same notation — as the dash is some- 
times used — in contradictory senses. 



The principal marks of punctuation are the following twelve : — 



The period ( . ), 

The colon ( : ), 

The semicolon ( $ ), 

The comma ( . ), 

The interrogation-point . ( ? ), 
The exclamation-point. . ( ! ), 



The dash , (— ) 

The curves ( ( ) ) 

The brackets ([] 

The hyphen (- 

The quotation-marks. . .( u " or ^ ' ) 
The underscore . . ( BBas ^ ISBSass ^ iaismam ) 



In applying these marks, discourse may be viewed as composed 
of paragraphs, sentences, clauses, phrases, words, and parts of words 
all of which may be briefly termed parts. 

The pauses are relative rather than absolute. The semicolon requires a pause 
double that of the comma ; the colon, double that of the semicolon ; and the 
period, double that of the colon, and sometimes even longer. AEost of the other 
points require pauses that depend chiefly on the seme. Grave or solemn dis- 
course requires longer pauses than that which is lively and spirited. 



The division of his discourse into volumes, books, parts, cantos, 
verses, chapters, sections, paragraphs, and sentences, is left chiefly to 
every writer's own taste and judgment. 

* It is said that Aldus Manutins and his grandson, two printers of Venice, devised Italics 
and the four principal points, about the beginning.of the fifteenth century. The interrogation 
and exclamation points are ascribed to Spanish printers, and the dash has been ascribed to 
the French. — Peeiod means, literally, a circuit of words; colon, a member ; semicolon, 
half a member ; and comma, a part cut off. See Metonymy, p. 263. 



316 PUNCTUATION. PERIOD. 

A paragraph always begins anew, and consists of one or more sentences, com* 
prising usually all that relates to one subject. Paragraphs are commonly kept 
apart by short breaks, or blank spaces. 

A sentence must be complete, in sense and construction, with reference to 
what precedes it or follows it. It is, in general, so much of the author's dis- 
course as he chooses to present as one thought. 



1. PERIOD. 

1. The period is put at the end of every complete sentence that 
is not interrogative or exclamatory. 

Ex. — " Begin and end with God." 

" If the counsel is good, no matter who gave it." 

" As yet, the forests stand clothed in their dress of undecayed magnificence. 
The winds, that rustle through their tops, scarcely disturb the silence of the 
shades below. The mountains and the valleys glow in warm green, of lively 
russet." — J. Story. 

Exercises.* — " He that wants health, wants every thing" 
" Give, then, generously and freely recollect, that, in so doing, you are ex- 
ercising one of the most godlike qualities in your nature go home, and look at 
your families, smiling in rosy health, and then think of the pale, famine-pinched 
cheeks of the poor children of Ireland" — S. S. Prentiss 

2. It is sometimes used to separate sentences closely allied in 
sense and construction. 

Ex. — " The character of Washington is among the most cherished contem- 
plations of my life. It is a fixed star in the firmament of great names, shining with- 
out twinkling or obscuration, with clear, steady, beneficent light. It is associated 
with all our reflections on things near and dear to us." — Webster. 

Such sentences were formerly often separated by the colon, and are now some- 
times separated by the semicolon. 

Exercises. — " No man ever lived under a more abiding sense of responsi- 
bility no man strove more faithfully to use time and talent as ever in the great 
Taskmaster's eye no man, so richly endowed, was ever less ready to trust in 
his own powers, or more prompt to own his dependence on his Maker" — Review : 
Milton 

3. It sometimes separates sentences even when connected by con- 
junctions. 

Ex. — " It may be that the submissive loyalty of our fathers was preferable to 
that inquiring, censuring, resisting spirit that is abroad. And so it may be that 
infancy is a happier period than manhood, and manhood than old age. But 
God has decreed that old age shall succeed to manhood, and manhood to infancy. 
Even so societies have their law of growth." — Macaulay. 

Sentences of this structure are also sometimes separated by the semicolon, or, 
where a greater point is needed, by the colon. 

Exercises. — "This scene is worth a voyage across the Atlantic yet here, 
as in the neighborhood of the Natural Bridge, are people who have passed their 
fives within half a dozen miles, and have never been to survey these monuments 
of a war between rivers and mountains, which must have shaken the earth 
itself to its centre"— Jefferson 

* Insert pokits and capital letters, or whatever is needed to make the examples correct. 



PUNCTUATION. PERIOD. 317 

4. It is sometimes put modestly after a sentence that is expressed, 
for the sake of greater force, in the interrogative or exclamatory 
form, though declarative in sense ; or when the interrogation or ex- 
clamation point would be too forcible. 

Ex. — " To be a rebel or a schismatic, was surely not all that ought to be re- 
quired of a man in high employment. What would become of the finances, 
w r hat of the marine, if the Whigs who could not understand the plainest balance- 
sheet were to manage the revenue, and Whigs who had never walked over a 
dock -yard to fit out the fleet." — Macaulay. 

Exercises. — " I thought my new acquirements would enable me to see the 
ladies with tolerable intrepidity ; but, alas ! how vain are all the hopes of theory, 
when unsupported by habitual practice" — Eclectic Magazine 

5. It is used to separate words and phrases, when put for such en- 
tire sentences as any of the foregoing. 

Ex. — "iEt. 19 +. Tender-eyed blonde. Long ringlets. Cameo pin. Gold 
pencil-case on a chain. Locket. Bracelet. Album. Autograph book. Ac- 
cordion. Reads Byron, Tupper, and Sylvanus Cobb, junior, while her mother 
makes the puddings. Says, 'Yes?' when you tell her anything." — 0. W. 
Holmes. 

Exercises. — " Out with the boat here to the left that will do" 

6. It is put after any word or phrase complete by itself, or suffi- 
ciently significant alone ; as, headings, signatures, titles, directions, 
imprints, advertisements, etc. 

Ex. — "For Sale." "Opinions of the Press." "Dr. B. Bruns, Chairman." 
" To the Honorable the Legislature of Virginia." "St. Louis, Aug. 1st, 1857." 
" The History of England, from the Accession of James the Second. By Thomas 
Babington Macaulay. Volume I. Philadelphia : E. H. Butler & Co. 1860." 

Exercises. — "Contents" "Apollo Garden" "From Punch" "Yours, 
truly, John Griscom" " To the Hon Edward Bates" " H Clay, Select Speeches 
of 8vo Price $1 00" " Popular Astronomy By M Mitchell, LLD New 
York: Phinney, Blakeman, and Mason 1860" 

" Archbishop What is your business, friend ? 

" Gil Bias I am the young man w T ho w r as recommended to you" 

7. The period is put after every abbreviation, and then supersedes 
no point except itself. 

Ex.— "Albany, jST. Y., Sept., 1860." "Henry Holmes, Esq., addressed the 
assembly." "Sir David Brewster, K. H, LL.D., F.R.S., L. & E." 

Exercises. — "T S Glover, Esq, was called to the chair" "To Mr and Mrs 
Lindsay" " Dr I P Vaughan" "At 7 o'clock, P M" "To the Hon Wm B 
Stark, Sup't of Com Schools" " On the 4th hist he disappeared" 

a. In compound numbers, the period usually supersedes the comma. 
Ex.—" 7 T. 3 cwt. 2 qr. 8 lb. 3 oz."— D. P. Colbwni. " £1. 10s. 6d."— 

Wilson. 

b. When the abbreviation becomes itself a word, the period is 
not used. 

Ex. — " Will Hardman had three sons ; Tom, Ned, and George." — Eawkes- 
worth. "20 per cent advance." 

Exercises. — " Rare Ben Johnson" "Gen Tom Thumb" "Pants were made 
for gents" "On the 1st inst, stocks were 5 per cent below par" 



318 PUNCTUATION. — COLON. 

Such expressions as 1st, 2d, 2dly, 4th, 5th, do not take the abbreviating period ; 
tor they are not so much abbreviations as they are cardinal numbers made ordinal. 

8. The period is put at the end of figures or letters that introduce 
enumerated parts. 

Ex.— " 125. The Discontented Pendulum." "Lesson LXL— On the Govern- 
ment of the Tongue." "I have two good reasons: 1. I can not give my atten- 
tion to it; 2. I have no money to invest in it." " Of this species there are two 
varieties : (a.) The preposition and present participle ; (6.) The preposition and 
perfect participle." — -S. S. Greene. 

Exercises. — "118 Practical Jokes" "Let us consider — 1 Its soil; 2 Its 
climate." 

a. The period is generally preferred, for the sake of neatness, after 
Roman or Arabic numerals, though the comma or the semicolon would 
often be more accurate ; as, " Isa. lv. 3 ; Ezek. xviii. 20." 

9. The period separates decimals from whole numbers. 

Ex.—" 42.75 yds., for $9,055 +." 

Exercises. — " The young lady at the blackboard answered, that 40 chickens, 
at 12 cents each, cost $480." 

2. COLON. 

1. The colon is the intermediate point between the period and 
the semicolon. 

Ex. — " Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few 
to be chewed and digested : that is, some books are to be read only in parts ; 
others to be read, but not curiously ; and some few to be read wholly and with 
diligence." — Bacon. 

Exercises. — A wicked man, in his iniquitous plans, either fails or suc- 
ceeds if he fails, disappointment is embittered by reproach ; if he succeeds, suc- 
cess is without pleasure, for, when he looks around, he sees no smile of con- 
gratulation. — Harper's Magazine. 

We have but faith we can not know ; 
For knowledge is of things we see ; 
And yet we trust it comes from thee 
A beam in darkness let it grow. — Tennyson. 

2. It is put at the end of a sentence, complete in sense, to which 
is annexed some additional remark or further explanation ; especially 
when the conjunction is omitted. In this sense it answers to How 
so ? Why so ? Explain more fully what you mean. 

Ex. — " Our good and evil proceed from ourselves : death appeared terrible 
to Cicero, indifferent to Socrates, desirable to Cato." — British Essayists. 
" Princes have courtiers, and merchants have partners; the voluptuous have 
companions, and the wicked have accomplices : none but the virtuous can have 
friends." — Johnson. 

"With diadem and sceptre high advanced, 
The lower still I fail ; only supreme 
In misery: such joy ambition finds." — Milton. 
Exercises. — What a fool am I to drudge any more at this woollen trade I 
for a lawyer I was born, and a lawyer I will be one is never too old to learn. 
— Arbuthnot. With regard to the faults of others, however, we say 'fear' " I 
fsarhe may be led into such and such an action." — Whately. 



PUNCTUATION. COLON. 319 

Dear Welsted, mark, in dirty hole, 
That painful animal, the mole 
Above ground never born to grow, 
"What mighty stir he keeps below i — Pope. 

3. It is put at the end of whatever formally promises or introduces 
something, and ends with as follows, the following, this, these, thus, 
or suggests such a meaning. 

Ex. — " Of cruelty to animals, let the reader take the following specimen: — 
Running an iron hook into the intestines of a live animal ; presenting this ani- 
mal to another as his food ; and then pulling up this second creature, and sus- 
pending him by the barb in his stomach." — Sydney Smith. 

"There are two questions which grow out of this subject: 1st, How far is 
any sort of classical education useful ? 2dly, How far is that particular classi- 
cal education adopted in this country useful?" — Id. 

Exercises, — This is the state of man to-day he puts forth 

The tender leaves of hope ; to-morrow blossoms, 
And bears his blushing honors thick upon him ; 
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost. — Shakespeare. 
Mr. Wirt then rose, and began thus 
"Alumni of the University, ladies, and gentlemen 
" The occasion," etc. 

4. Hence it is generally, used to introduce a quoted paragraph 
or discourse. 

Ex.—- " ' The Press!— What is the Press?' I cried; 

When thus a wondrous voice replied : 
' In me all human knowledge dwells, 
The oracle of oracles,'" etc. — Montgomery. 
"He said to the men who carried aw r ay his trunk to the boat: * Go, and 
fetch back my trunk; I will not go if my mother is to be made unhappy by 
it.' " — Irving 1 s Washington. 

The comma should be preferred, when there is a close dependence, and but a 
single quoted sentence ; as, " He said, ' I will abide the consequences.' " 
Exercises. — But Douglas round him drew his cloak, 
Folded his arms, and thus he spoke 
My manors, halls, and tow T ers, shall still 
Be open at my sovereign's will, etc. — Scott. 

5. It has been frequently used to separate a figure from what 
it illustrates. 

Ex. — "Ambition often puts men upon performing the meanest offices: so 
climbing and creeping are performed in the same posture." — Swift. 
Exercises. — Small service is true service while it lasts ; 
Of friends, however humble, scorn not one 
The daisy, by the shadow that it casts, 

Protects the lingering dew-drop from the sun. — Wordsworth. 

6. It was formerly much used, and is now sometimes used, to 
separate complete sentences that are more closely allied to one 
another than to what precedes or follows them. In this sense, 
the semicolon or the period is now often preferred. 

Ex. — " Property is private, individual, absolute. Trade is an extended and 
complicated consideration: it reaches as far as ships can sail or winds can blow: 



320 PUNCTUATION. COLON. 

it is a great and various machine. To regulate the numberless movements, 1 
etc.: — Chatham. 

" That was enough : the spark had fallen : the train was ready : the explo- 
sion was immediate and terrible." — Macaulay. 

" It is an intensely cold climate that is sufficient to freeze quicksilver : the 
climate of Siberia is sufficient to freeze quicksilver : therefore the climate of Si- 
beria is intensely cold." — Whately. 

But Sir William Hamilton writes, " He who conscientiously performs his duty 
is a truly good man ; Socrates conscientiously performs his duty ; therefore Socra- 
tes is a good man." 

Exercises. — Lightning takes the readiest and best conductor ; so does the 
electrical fluid lightning burns ; so does electricity lightning sometimes destroys 
life animals have also been killed by lightning. — Eclectic Magazine. 

7. In the grave or formal style, it is used after the address 
which stands next to the beginning of a letter or other writing. 

Ex. — " Hon. Edward Everett. 

" Dear Sir : 

" I thank you for your, etc. 

" Joseph Story." 
In the familiar style, the comma, or the comma with the dash, is often preferred. 
Ex.— " Dear Sir, 

" The latest news from Boston, giving information, etc. 

" James Madison." 
There is great diversity as to the mode of punctuating such phrases.. When 
the period is put after the first address, it shows simply to whom the letter is sent, 
which then begins with the next address ; but when an inferior point is placed 
after the first phrase, the person is addressed by name as if he were present to the 
writer. The neatest form seems to be that of putting a period after the first ad- 
dress, and a comma after the second, if the phrases occupy different lines ; and a 
period with a dash after the first, and a colon after the second, if they are in the 
same line with the beginning of the letter. 
" George W. Taylor, Esq. 

" Dear Sir, 

" As you write me to give," etc. 
"■George W. Taylor, Esq. — Dear Sir : As you write me to give my opinion," 
etc. — The Printer, 

8. It is used after words or phrases that stand at the beginning 
of sentences, and have the sense referred to in the third rule of this 
section. Indeed, the chief use of the colon is, to show that the 
part before it is incomplete and promissory, and that the part after 
it contains the main thought, or an important appendage to it. 

Ex. — "For example: 'When the verb is a passive, the agent and object 
change places. 7 Better: "When the verb is passive, the agent and the object 
change places." — G. Brown. 

"No: this is not learning: it is chemistry or political economy — not learn- 
ing." — Eclectic Magazine. 

Exercises. — To sum up all If we must, etc. 

Terms Three Dollars a Year, invariably in Advance. 

It is sometimes put between a subject and what is said of it. 

Ex. — "Kansas: what can you say of it ?" — School Geography. This usage 
does not seem to be well established. 

9. It is sometimes used to separate the name of a person or thing 
from that of the locality ; or a second reference from a first. 






PUNCTUATION. SEMICOLON. 321 

Ex. — "A layer of Slate in Hornblende : Cornwall, England." — Hitchcock. 
Exercises. — "London Partridge & Co." "Edgur A. Poe The Pioneer." 
But, in phrases like the following, the comma is used: u To Wm. Holmes, 
No 25, Spruce Street." 

It is sometimes used, though improperly, as a mark of abbreviation. 

Ex.— "To Chas: D. Drake, Esq."; better, "To Chas. D. Drake, Esq." 
10. It is used as the sign of proportion. 

Ex. — 2 : 4 : : 3 : 6 = As two is to four, so three is to six. 

The colon, m most of its senses, is akin to the dash ; and hence, when the 
pause which accompanies the colon would be too long, the dash is sometimes 
preferred. 

3. SEMICOLON. 

1. The semicolon is used as the next greater point than the com- 
ma, or as intermediate between the comma and the colon or period. 

It is often used when related parts already have the comma, and 
a greater point is needed. 

Ex. — " "Without dividing, he destroyed party ; without corrupting, he made 
a venal age unanimous." — Grattan. 

" The Indians are taken by surprise : some are shot down in their cabins ; 
others rush to the river, and are drowned ; others push from the shore in their 
birchen canoes, and are hurried down the cataract." — Bancroft. 

Exercises. — If it was intended for us as well as for you, why has not the 
Great Spirit given it to us and not only to us, but why did he not give to our 
forefathers the knowledge of that book with the means of rightly understanding 
itir-JS Everett. 

A love of equality is another strong principle in a republic therefore it does 
not tolerate hereditary honor or wealth and all the effect produced on the minds 
of the people by this fictitious power is lost, and the government weakened but, 
in proportion as the government is less able to command, the people should be 
more willing to obey. — British Essayists. 

2. It frequently separates two clauses, connected by but, for, and, 
or some other connective, when they are not very closely dependent 
on each other. 

Ex. — " That the world is overrun with vice, can not be denied ; but vice, 
however predominant, has not yet gained unlimited dominion." — Johnson. 

" Keep thine heart with all diligence ; for out of it are the issues of life." — 
Bible. 

" He is, indeed, a horse ; and all the other jades you may call beasts." — 
Shakespeare. 

a. The conjunction or connective is sometimes omitted. 

Ex. — " The miser grows rich by seeming poor ; an extravagent man grows 
poor by seeming rich." — Proverb. 

Exercises. — " The town was set on fire and a witness of the scene relates 
that two thousand Indians were slain, suffocated, or burned." — Bancroft. 

Napoleon was an early riser so were Frederick the Great, Charles the 
Twelfth, and Washington. 

When the latter part is a mere phrase, the comma is preferred before it, even 
when the part itself is subdivided by the comma. 

Ex. — " And therefore will I take the Nevil's part, and, when I spy advantage, 
claim the crown." — Shakespeare. 

14* 



322 PUNCTUATION. SEMICOLON. 

3. It is used to separate short related sentences, when two or 
more of these are gathered into one sentence. 

Ex. — " Listen to the advice of your parents ; treasure up their precepts ; re- 
spect their riper judgment ; and endeavor to merit the approbation of the wise 
and good." 

" On the land were large flocks of magpies and American robins ; whole 
fleets of ducks and geese navigated the river, or flew off in long streaming files ; 
while the frequent establishment of the pains-taking beaver showed that the 
solitudes of these waters were seldom disturbed even by the all-pervading savage." 
— Irving. 

Exercises. — He suffered much oppression he was often imprisoned he was 
finally compelled to go into exile. — Macaulay. 

Epic poetry recites the exploits of heroes tragedy represents disastrous events 
comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind pastoral poetry describes 
rural life and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart. 

4. Either of the principal elements, and, generally, any of the 
modifying elements, can be so extended as to make a loose series, 
whose parts may be separated by the semicolon, especially if any of 
them are subdivided by the comma. This has been called the enu- 
merative sense. The dash is sometimes used, though less properly. 

Ex. — " To give an early preference to honor above gain, when they stand in 
competition ; to despise every advantage which can not be gained without dis- 
honest arts ; to brook no meanness, and stoop to no dissimulation, — are the in- 
dications of a great mind." 

"Asa traveler, Smith had roamed over France ; had visited the shores of 
Egypt ; had returned to Italy ; and, panting for glory, had sought the borders of 
Hungary, where had long existed an heredtary warfare with the followers of Ma- 
homet." — Bancroft. 

" 'I have always,' says Ledyard, f remarked that women in all countries are 
civil and obliging, tender and humane ; that they are ever inclined to be gay and 
cheerful, timorous and modest ; and that they do not hesitate, like men, to per- 
form a generous action.' " 

Exercises. — The disposition to insult and mockery is awakened by the 
softness of foppery, the swell of insolence, the liveliness of levity, or the solemnity 
of grandeur by the sprightly trip, the stately stalk, the formal strut, and tho 
lofty mien by gestures intended to catch the eye, and looks elaborately formed 
as evidence of importance. — Johnson. 

A salad should be, as to its contents, multifarious as to its proportions, an 
artistic harmony as to its flavor, of a certain pungent taste. — Ec. Magazine. 

False in institutions, for he retrograded false in policy, for he debased false in 
morals, for he corrupted false in civilization, for he debased. — Lamartine. 

5. An explanatory or appositive phrase, an adjective phrase, a 
participial phrase, or any other phrase, especially when elliptical, or 
subdivided by the comma, is often set off by the semicolon. 

Ex. — "It was a voyage of discovery; a circumnavigation of charity." — 
Burke. 

" Mercer was upright, intelligent, and brave ; esteemed as a soldier and be- 
loved as a man, and by none more so than by Washington." — Irving. 

"Charles the Twelfth, of Sweden; born, 1682; killed by a cannon-ball, 1718.* 

Exercises. — Eloquence is action noble, sublime, godlike action. — Webster. 

I assure you I will never go to see her no, not I. — Edgeworth. 

There are three persons the first, the second, and the third. — G. Brown. 






PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 323 

This lovely land, this glorious liberty, these benign institutions, are ours ours 
to enjoy, ours to preserve, ours to transmit. — Webster. 

I will never give my consent to such an undertaking never, never, never I — 
Chatham. 

He is my major-domo that is, my steward, or superintendent over household 
affairs. — Prescott. 

Among the oaks, I observed many of the most diminutive size some not 
above a foot high, yet bearing bunches of small acorns. — Irving. 

6. It is generally used before as, introducing an example. 
Ex. — " Can signifies ability; as, 'I can read.' " 

Exercises. -Not wet as, "Dry hay" u Dry wood." — Worcester. 

7. The semicolon, considered simply as a greater point than the 
comma, is much applied to phrases, or series of phrases, that are not 
emotional. See p. 330. 

Ex. — " The Minstrel ; or, The Progress of Genius." — Beattie. 
" State vs. John O'Neal, larceny; dismissed." — Newspaper. 
"Inestimable. Too valuable or excellent to be rated ; being above all price ; 
as, ' inestimable rights.' " — K Webster. 

II A dress of blue silk ; plain, high body ; the waist and point of a moderate 
length ; the skirt long and full, with two broad flounces pinked at the edge." — 
Harper's Magazine. 

"Contents: Fate; Power; Wealth; Culture; Behavior; Worship; Con- 
siderations by the Way; Beauty; Illusion." — Atlantic Monthly. Here the com- 
ma would have slurred over the matter too lightly, or not given it the desired 
importance. 

Exercises.— Rio, 9 cents Maracaibo, 12 cents Java, 15 cents. 
In sight of Santa Fe made an early start came to a fine spring shot an 
antelope saw a herd of wild horses, etc., etc. 

Contributors Dr. 0. W. Holmes Mrs. Sigourney Gilmore Sims, Esq. 

4. COMMA. 

1. The comma is generally used where the sense requires a short 
pause, but not sufficiently great for the semicolon. 

Ex. — " It was supposed to be an island, and received the name of Florida 
from the day on which it was discovered, and from the aspect of the forests, 
which were then brilliant with a profusion of blossoms, and gay with the fresh 
verdure of early spring." — Bancroft. 

Exercises. — There upon a point of land at the entrance of the haven a lofty 
cross was erected bearing a shred with the lilies of France and an appropriate 
inscription. — Id. 

From the hills in his jurisdiction he could behold across the clear waters of a placid 
sea the magnificent vegetation of Porto Rico which distance rendered still more 
admirable as it was seen through the transparent atmosphere of the tropics. — Id. 

Perhaps almost all punctuation in regard to the comma, might be reduced to 
the four following heads : — 

1. The serial sense. Two parts, connective, — no comma ; more parts, or 

2. The parenthetic sense. Comma. [two without connective, — comma. 

3. The explanatory sense. Comma. 

4. The restrictive sense. No comma. 

If any one will examine the punctuation of a well-pointed book, he will probably 



324 PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 

ue surprised to see how far these four principles reach. We might easily enlarge 
on this view of the subject, but, to make as little innovation as possible, we shall 
consider the comma, — 

First, with reference to compound sentences. 

Secondly, with reference to simple sentences, and smaller parts. 

2. The comma is used to separate the clauses of a compound sen- 
tence, when they are too closely connected for the semicolon. 

Ex. — " There mountains rise, and circling oceans flow." — Pope. "How 
wretched, were I mortal, were my state." — Id. u The beautiful fern lies in rusty 
patches on the open hill-side, though within the woods it is still fresh and green.' 
— Cooper. " Columbus, w T ho discovered America., was a Genoese." "But oc- 
casions are past, the hour of their reckoning is nigh at hand, even now my twi- 
light is coming on, and my hopes are darkening into regrets." — Ec. Magazine. 

Exercises. — Since life is short let us not be too solicitous about the future. 
I can not succeed unless my friends assist me. Where the carcass is there will 
the buzzards be gathered. Either a sterner course must be pursued with him 
or he must be sent to some other school. What you leave at your death let it 
be without controversy else the lawyers will be your heirs. Wealth is of no 
real use except it be well employed. Such was the terrible explosion of the 
boat that not a life was saved. So violent were the wind and rain that our 
wheat was destroyed. I go but I return. Whatever we ardently wish to gain 
we must in the same degree be afraid to lose. Her mouth costs her nothing for 
she never opens it bat at others' expense. And yet after all it is man it is mind 
it is intelligent spirit that gives to this grand theatre of the material universe all 
its worth all its glory. The farmer who had never been in a city before and who 
was therefore most easily duped at once bid on the watch. When public bodies 
are to be addressed on momentous occasions when great interests are at stake 
and strong passions excited nothing is valuable in speech farther than it is con- 
nected with high moral and intellectual endowments. If it be in the spring of 
the year and the young grass has just covered the ground with a carpet of deli- 
cate green and especially if the sun is rising from behind a distant swell of the 
plain no scene can be more lovely to the eye. 

a. The clauses are sometimes elliptical, but punctuated as if they 
were not so. 

Ex. — " The wind was the keenest, and the snow the deepest, that ever an- 
noyed a traveler." " Husbands were torn from their wives, and children from 
their parents." "Say, shall my bark attendant sail?" " A peal of gunpowder 
was heard on the water, and another, and another." 

Exercises. — If so the worst might well be expected. My pen diverged to 
the right then to the left. And there was now no talk no sport no rest but dig 
gold wash gold refine gold load gold. There was a greater variety of colors in 
the embroidery of the meadows a more lively green in the leaves and grass a 
brighter crystal in the streams than I met with elsewhere. 

3. A clause is not set off when restrictive, or when it depends 
closely on something else, and has the sense of a noun, an adjective, 
or an adverb. Such are — 

a. Restrictive relative clauses. 

Ex. — " He was a man whom nothing could turn aside from the path which 
duty pointed out." u I plucked such plums as were ripe." " I will sell you 
whatever you wish to buy." 

b. Clauses beginning with as, because, how, if, lest, than, that, 



PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 325 

when, where, whether, while, why, or other adverbs of time, place, or 
manner, and closely depending on the preceding clause. 

Ex. — " He has acted as an honorable man should act." "He is not the less 
a gentleman because he is poor." " Edwin saw how happy the old bird was 
with her nestlings." " Tell me when it was that you saw him." " There is 
nothing humbler than ambition when it is about to climb." " Do you know 
whether he is at home ?" 

c. Clauses from which the antecedent or the relative is omitted, 
or the conjunction that, to make the connection still closer. Indeed, 
restrictive clauses, like other clauses, are frequently elliptical. 

Ex. — " Take which you like." " I saw the book you mentioned." " He 
thought he had never seen anything quite so beautiful before." "A good name 
is rather to be chosen than great riches." 

Exercises* — He deserved neither the reproaches which had been c ist upon 
him while the event was doubtful nor the praises which he received when it 
had proved successful. It is such men as he is that bring the party into dis- 
repute. Avoid a slanderer as you would a scorpion. Tory writers have with 
justice remarked that the language of these compositions was as servile as any 
thing that could be found in the most florid eulogies pronounced by bishops on 
the Stuarts. He informed them whence we came whither we were going who 
we were. The rain fell in sheets the thunder rolled the lightning flashed fierce 
and lurid and the wind, swept in gusts over the thicket as if it would uproot it 
altogether. We weep over the dead because they have no life and over the 
living because they have no perfection. The variety of wild fruits and flower- 
ing shrubs is so great and such the profusion of blossoms with which they are 
bowed down that the eye is regaled almost to satiety. 

4. A word or phrase having the sense of a clause that would be 
set off by the comma, is also set off by the comma. 

Such are frequently participial or adjective phrases, when they are explanatory, 
or not restrictive. 

Ex. — "By assisting him, you will benefit yourself;" i. e., " If you assist him," 
etc. " Ores are natural compounds, being produced by nature." H I dislike all 
misery, voluntary or involuntary." 

Exercises. — No child's play to make a breach here. Some Cromwell guilt- 
less of his country's blood. It is morning and a morning sweet fresh and beauti- 
ful. There was a Grecian liberty bold and powerful full of spirit eloquence and 
fire. The blast seemed to bear away the sound of the voice permitting noth- 
ing to be heard but its own wild howling mingled with the creaking and rat- 
tling of the cordage and the hoarse thunder of the surges striving like savage 
beasts for our destruction. 

5. Simple sentences do riot usually require the comma. 

Ex. — " The real security of Christianity is to be found in its benevolent moral- 
ity." "Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid some heart once pregnant with 
celestial fire." — Gray. 

Exercises. — To be, contents his natural desire. The blossoms of spring 
and the fruits of autumn, give pleasure to the soul. 

6. When the entire subject is a clause, or a long participial or 
infinitive phrase ; when it has a clause, a long adjunct or other simi- 
lar phrase, or parts requiring the comma ; when it ends with a verb, 
or with a noun that might improperly be read as the nominative ; 



326 PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 

or when a word precedes the verb, that would otherwise be of doubt- 
ful character or reference, — it seems best to separate the subject from 
its predicate. 

Ex. — " That one bad example spoils many good precepts, is well known.' 
" He that has much nose, thinks every one speaks of it." " Whatever improves 
him, delights him." " To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real de- 
fect in character." "For me to furnish him so large and expensive an outfit, is 
utterly impossible." "His having been seen in the neighborhood, was the 
ground of suspicion." "Honor, affluence, and pleasure, seduce the heart." 
" Necessity, that great excuse for human frailty, breaks through all law." 

There is a strong tendency to omit the comma from before the predicate of such 
sentences as the first seven of the foregoing. 

Exercises. — He who falls in love with himself will have no rivals. "What- 
ever is is right. Who does nothing knows nothing. To maintain a steady 
course amid all the adversities of life marks a great mind. What the design of 
these men was has never been ascertained. Family feuds violated friendships 
and litigations with neighbors are the banes of society. Flames above around 
beneath and within devour the edifice. Divide and conquer is a principle 
equally just in science and in policy. 

7. When the predicate-nominative is a long clause or infinitive 
phrase, and immediately follows the verb be, it is usually set off, 
especially when it has the air of importance, and might be made 
the subject. 

Ex. — " One of the greatest secrets in composition is. to know when to be 
simple." — Blair. " Their service was, to grind the corn and carry the baggage.' - 
— Irving. "But the question is, are the examples correct in syntax?"— 
G. Brown. "The consequence is, that most animals have acquired a fear of 
man." — Nat. History. 

Exercises. — The great mystery about the theft was that the door was found 
still locked as before. All that a man gets by lying is that he is not believed 
when he speaks the truth. The question that is to be discussed to-night by the 
speakers is " Would the Extension of our Territory endanger our Liberties?" 

8. Three or more serial terms, or two without their connective, 

are separated by the comma. 

An adjective qualifying others after it with a noun, is not set off; as, "Two 
large black horses." " The little, round buds unfolded into broad white blossoms." 

Ex. — "No virtue, no eminence, conferred security." 

" Hedges, trees, groves, gardens, orchards, woods, farm-houses, huts, halls, 
mansions, palaces, spires, steeples, towers, and temples, all go wavering by, as 
the steed skims along, to the swelling or sinking music of the hounds, now loud 
as a regimental band, now faint as an echo." — Prof. Wilson. " 

" Far above us towered an iron-bound coast, dark, desolate, barren, precipi- 
tous, against which the long, rolling swell of the Pacific broke with a dull, dis- 
heartening roar." — California. 

Exercises. — A virgin of eighteen tall and straight bright blooming and 
balmy seems to our old age a very beautiful and delightful object. — Prof Wil- 
son. But in truth that amplitude and acuteness of intellect that vivacity of 
fancy that terse and energetic style that placid dignity half courtly half phi- 
losophical which the utmost excitement of conflict could not for a moment de- 
range belonged to Halifax and to Halifax alone. — Macaulay. 



PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 327 

9. When the terms of a series are joined in pairs, they should 
be separated in pairs by the comma. 

Ex. — " I inquired and rejected, consulted and deliberated, till the sixty- 
second year made me ashamed of wishing to marry." — Johnson. 

Exercises. — The poor and the rich the weak and the strong have all one 
Father. Neither time nor distance neither weal nor woe can separate us. 

10. Two terms connected by and, or, or nor, are not separated by 
the comma. 

Ex.— " Seed-time and harvest shall not fail." "Did a father or a mother 
ever watch over him ?" " To feel no guilt and to fear no accusation, is the pre- 
rogative of innocence." 

Exercises. — Here thy temple was, and is. The proper authorities were 
overlooked, or slightly regarded. Neither the love of fame, nor the fear of shame 
can make him stoop to an unjust action. 

11. But when a part of one of the terms might improperly be 
referred to the other ; when or adds a substantive in the explanatory 
sense merely ; when the terms are unusually long ; or when the latter 
term is strongly emphatic or parenthetic, — the two are separated by 
the comma. 

Ex. — "The gleam of the ocean, and vast prairies of verdure, were before us." 
u The skull, or cranium, protects the brain." " That the king would retreat, or 
that the people would lay down their arms, was not to be expected." " Ap- 
proach, and behold, while I lift from his sepulchre its covering !" 

Exercises. — 'Twas certain he could write and cipher too. He went and 
addressed the crowd. The English dove or cushat is also noted for its cooing or 
murmuring. Othello and Prince Hamlet. "There was now no way left but to 
retreat and load his gun." — Willsorts Readers. 

12. Repeated words or expressions are generally separated by the 
comma. 

Ex. — " Home, home ! sweet, sweet home !" " Yerily, verily, I say unto you." 
Exercises. — 1 1 1 am the man. Quickly quickly come away 
The old oaken bucket the iron-bound bucket 
The moss-covered bucket which hung in the well ! 

13. Two terms contrasted, or emphatically distinguished, are gene- 
rally separated by the comma. 

Ex. — " It is used so, but erroneously." " Though poor, luxurious ; though 
submissive, vain." " He was impulsive, yet prudent." " To soften, not to 
wound, the heart." " He read novels, in stead of law." 

Exercises. — By honor and dishonor by evil report and good report as 
chastened and not killed as sorrowful yet always rejoicing as poor yet making 
many rich. 

14. The comma often cuts off a part, to show its common de- 
pendence on two or more parts which are themselves separated by 
the comma. 

A predicate is thus set off, when it relates to separated nominatives preceding 
it ; a restrictive relative clause, when it relates to separated antecedents ; a substan- 
tive, when it is preceded by two adjectives or prepositions that are separated by 
intervening matter ; and parts generally that relate to separated words from which 
the connective is omitted. 



328 PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 

Ex. — "The benches, chairs, and tables, were thrown down." "The wheat, 
corn, and hay, which it produces, are of the best quality." " They were re- 
ceived without distinction in public, and consequently in private, payments." — ■ 
Macaulay. "Such implied covenants as are annexed to, and of course run with, 
the reversion." — Ghitty. 

Exercises. — The water was as bright and pure and seemed as precious as 
liquid diamonds. But no such rule had ever been or ever would be formed. 
And all that beauty all that wealth e'er gave. The classics possess a peculiar 
charm from the circumstance that they have been the models I might almost 
say the masters of composition and thought in all ages. 

When a negative and an affirmative phrase stand loosely after another part, 
both are set off by the comma; if the former phrase is in close combination with 
the verb, only the latter phrase is set off by the comma. " The pedant was there- 
fore heard by him, not only with weariness, but with malignity ;" " The pedant was 
therefore heard not only with weariness, but with malignity." 

15. A word, phrase, or clause, that is parenthetic, or that breaks 

the connection of parts closely connected, is set off by the comma. 

A part thus set off stands most frequently after a coniunction, an adjective, or 
an adverb, between a nominative and its verb, between the parts of a verb, or be- 
tween a verb and its object or adjunct. 

Ex. — " They set out early, and, before the dawn of day, arrived at the des- 
tined place." " Prudence, as well as courage, is necessary to overcome ob- 
stacles." "Burns, to be rightly judged, must be estimated by the times in 
which he lived." " Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they 
have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by 
the comma." 

Exercises. — Her magnificent hair black and glossy as a raven's wing fell 
in thick clusters almost to her knees. Bodily exercise especially in the open 
air is of the greatest importance to health. No disturbance however took 
place. The mother to save her infant sacrificed herself. Halifax mortified by 
his mischances in public life began to pine for his seat in Nottinghamshire. 
Cover your flowers for if they are unprotected to-night the frost will kill them. 
They knew their powers not or as they learned to know perverted them 
to evil. 

When such parts stand at the beginning or the end of a sentence or member, 
they are also generally set off by the comma. 

The most common parenthetic expressions are however, surely, indeed, perhaps, 
also, then, too, therefore, likewise, moreover, furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, 
accordingly, unquestionably, doubtless, meanwhile, lastly, finally, namely, of course, 
in fact, to be sure, no doubt, in short, in general, in reality, in a word, %n that case, 
in the mean time, in the first place, in every respect, for the most part, ivithout doubt, 
beyond question, now and then 4 on the contrary, on the other hand, generally speaking, 
as it were. 

The chief of those set off that usually stand at the beginning, are yes, no, well, 
tvhy, now, again, first, secondly, etc. 

When a parenthetic part is short, or but slightly interrupts the flow of other 
words, it is not set off; as, " It is perhaps true ;" " Gladly would we pour into thy 
bosom the balm of consolation." 

16. But when the part is restrictive, it is not set off from that 
which it modifies. 

Ex. — " He was one day in a field near a pond in which several geese were 
swimming." " The work is not worth the care and labor expended upon it." 
" The tree fell thundering to the ground." 



PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 329 

Exercises, — Trees growing at the base of mountains are taller than those 
on the summit. The carriage and horses necessary to conduct you there will 
be here early in the morning. The horse ran two miles, in five minutes and 
thirty seconds. . How dare you breathe that air, which wafted to Heaven the 
curses of those who fell a sacrifice to your ambition ? When statesmen heroes 
kings in dust repose. Our recruits stood, shivering and rubbing their hands. 

17. An adjunct, an adjective phrase, a participial phrase, an in- 
finitive phrase, or a clause, that stands by inversion at the beginning 
of a sentence or member, is generally set off by the comma. 

The comma is also placed after a surname when it precedes the Christian name ; 
as, " Pope, Alexander ; a British poet." " Smith, John H." 

Ex. — " To her, many a soldier, on the point of accomplishing his ambition, 
sacrifices the opportunity." " On that plain, in rosy youth, they had fed their 
father's flocks." " Calm, attentive, and cheerful, he confutes more gracefully 
than others compliment." " Having nothing else to do, I went." " To make 
this clear, I must tell you an old story." " When spring returns, the flowers 
will bloom." 

Exercises. — Of making many books there is no end. Large ripe and de- 
licious were the plums. Large ripe delicious were the plums. Tired of his 
toilsome flight and parched with heat he spied at length a cavern's cool retreat. 
To meet to check to curb to stand up against him we want arms of the same 
kind. Whether he is the man I do not know. 

If the extremities are related, or if the adjunct is short and unemphatic, or 
stands next to the verb, the comma is generally omitted ; as, "Suchahorse I would 
not buyy " What is now called a ministry, he did not think of forming?'' '•'-For 
them no more the blazing hearth, shall our a." " At the corner of the garden stood 
a tall poplar." 

18. A part is often set off by the comma, that it may not affect 
something next to it ; or to show its dependence on something re- 
mote, from which it is separated by intervening matter ; or when it 
stands at the beginning or the end, and adds an idea rather than 
modifies an idea. 

An adjunct, following another, or removed from what it modifies, is thus fre- 
quently set oil ; also an infinitive phrase, when it is removed a considerable dis- 
tance from what it modifies. 

Ex. — "Why, were you not there?" "He applied for the situation, with- 
out a recommendation." " No society, of which moral men are not the stamina, 
can exist long." "Whoever lives wickedly, must perish." " He is so young 
and inexperienced in the business, as to be unqualified." " He bought up all 
the mules he could find, to sell them again." 

Exercises. — The relations of nouns verbs or modifying words to other 
words. The ancients separated the corn from the ear by causing an ox to 
trample on the sheaves. And why did you not go then ? No sir never. To 
these bears seldom go. Is it not a melancholy thing to see a man clothed in 
soft raiment lodged in a public palace and endowed with a rich portion of other 
men's industry using all the influence of his splendid situation however uncon- 
sciously to deepen the ignorance or inflame the fury of his fellow-creatures ? 

19. Independent or absolute words, with what belongs to them, 

are generally set off by the comma. 

Such parts are nominatives independent, nominatives absolute, and sometimes 
interjections or adverbs. 



330 PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 

Ex. — "And so, Don Gomez, you will accompany us." "And now, sir, what 
is your conclusion ?" " Nocturnal silence reigning, a nightingale began." " 0, 
yes, I do." " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost." 

Exercises. — Friend John what 's wanted? To you Osman I consign half 
the city to you Mustapha the remainder. Thou whining budget of quack medi- 
cines why not take up thy boarding at once in an apothecary's shop ! To be a 
merchant the art consists more in getting paid than in making sales. The work 
being done we returned home. Front to front their horns locked every muscle 
strained they were fighting as bulls only can fight. "Why what 's the matter ? 
Again we conceive that natural theology though not a demonstrative is yet a pro- 
gressive science. 

20. When an appositive, or a phrase having an appositive, is af- 
fected by a preceding verb, or when it rather completes an idea than 
adds an idea, it is not set off; otherwise it is, especially when parer 
thetic or explanatory. 

Of parts not separated, we have — noun with noun or adjective • as, "The Eive 
Hudson," " Kead the artist," "Alexander the Great : pronoun with pronoun ; as 
u He himself went : pronoun with' noun j as, " Ye men of Altorf." 

Ex. — "They made him captain." "The nation regarded him as the prope 
chief of the administration." " I myself saw it." " His Excellency the Gov 
ernor." "The terms reason and instinct" "It is foolish to lay out money in : 
purchase of repentance." " It is through inward health that we enjoy all out 
ward things." 

"It is related of Tecumseh, the Indian warrior, that he would keep a promise 
even toward an enemy." "Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." "The greatest 
Roman orator, Cicero, was distinguished for his patriotism." "As a race, they 
have withered from the land." " This vastly more significant idea, that the earth 
is a globe, had by no means become incorporated into the general intelligence of 
the world." 

Exercises. — The darkness he called night. Plutarch calls lying, the vice of 
slaves. At Bushnell's the bookseller. At Bushnell, the bookseller's. Walter 
the second son is a captain in the navy. The poet Burns. Matthew the pub- 
lican. Thou traitor hence ! Moses the lawgiver, and God's first pen. 

21. The comma is often inserted where a finite verb is omitted. 
Ex. — " From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; and from curiosity, 

knowledge." 

The comma is omitted, when the interruption is but slight, and when the ellip- 
tical clauses depend in common on a part set off by the comma ; as, " The weather 
was fine, the sleigh new, and the road good" 

Exercises. — Hamilton was more declamatory imaginative and poetical. 
Burr clear pointed concise and compact. Shakespeare wrote his poetry and 
Bacon his philosophy in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 

22. A quotation closely depending on a verb or other word, is 
generally set off by the comma. 

Ex. — " l Knowledge is power,' says the father of modern philosophy." 
Exercises. — I say unto all Watch. Out spoke the hardy Highland wight 
" I'll go my chief— I'm ready." There is much truth in the proverb " Without 
pains no gains." It hurts a man's pride to say "I do not know." 

To facilitate the reading of large numbers that are not dates, the comma is used 
to separate them into periods; as, "The population of the United States is 
32,727,645." It is generally omitted when the numbers are expressed in words ; 
as, " Five million six thousand four hundred and twenty. 1 ' 



PUNCTUATION. INTERROGATION-POINT. 231 



5. INTERROGATION-POINT. 

1. The interrogation-point is put at the end of every 
direct question. 

Ex. — " Well, James, what have you got there ?" 

Exercises. — Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction shall 
we acquire the means of effectual resistance by lying supinely upon our backs 
until our enemies have bound us hand and foot is life so dear or peace so sweet 
as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery 

2. Indirect questions are not distinguished by this point, nor by- 
capital letters ; but, when quoted, or made direct, both are used. 

Ex. — " He asked me why I wept." Indirect. " He asked me, * Why do you 
weep ?' " Direct. 

Exercises. — I do not know who he is whence he came or whither he is 
going Do you know who he is whence he came or whither he is going 
Let us consider first of what use it will be and secondly what it will cost. 
Let us consider first of what use will it be and secondly what will it cost 
Is the law constitutional is the questiou for discussion to-night Whether the law 
is constitutional is the question for discussion I said to Defamation " who will 
hear thee " " When Diogenes was asked what wine he liked best ? he answered, 
'That which is drunk at the expense of others.'" — Johnson's Rambler. 

3. Interrogative sentences may sometimes be closely related in 
sense, or be elliptical, or be declarative in form. 

Ex. — " Is this reason? Is it law? Is it humanity?" — Wirt. "Does he 
hunt ? Does he shoot ? Is he in debt ? Is he temperate ? Does he attend to 
his parish ?" — Sydney Smith. " They say if the bill is rejected, Government 
must stop. What must stop ? The laws ? The judicial tribunals ? The legis- 
lative bodies ? The institutions 9f the country ? No, no, sir ! all these will 
remain, and go on." — Crittenden. Surely, sir, I have seen you before? 

4. The interrogation-point may supersede not only the period, 
but it may be used also within the sentence, so as to supersede the 
comma, the semicolon, or the colon. 

Ex.. — "Is any among you afflicted? let him pray;" "If any among you is 
afflicted, let him pray." "What have you to say, Charles? for I am waiting;" 
" Say what you have to say, Charles ; for I am waiting." " Who will not 
cherish the following sentiment of Clay ? ' I would rather be right than Presi- 
dent ;' " " Let us ever cherish the following sentiment of Clay : ' I would rather 
be right than President." But when the quoted sentence is needed to make the 
question complete, the interrogation-point is put at the end ; as, " Then, why 
did you not say at once, 'It is a cold day'? " — John Wilson. 

Exercises. — " Will you go " said he " or will you stay " 
What say you will you yield and this avoid 
Or guilty in defence be thus destroyed — Shakespeare, 

5. When two or more questions admit of different or distinc- 
answers, and have connectives ; or are used elliptically, with such 
dependence on something in common that they can not stand alone, 
— they may all be gathered into one sentence, with the interrogation- 
point after each. 



332 PUNCTUATION. EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

Ex. — "Is my name Talbot? and am I your son ? and shall I fly?" — Shake- 
speare. " Is there no honor in generosity? nor in preferring the lessons of con- 
science to the impulses of passion ? nor in maintaining the supremacy of moral 
principle, and paying reverence to Christian truth?" — G. Brown. "What are 
the interjections of joy ?« — of praise ? — of sorrow ?■ — of grief?" — Id. 

Exercises. — To purchase heaven has gold the power 

Can gold remove the mortal hour — Johnson. 

As the gentleman has thus settled the definition of aristocracy I trust that 
no man will think it a term of reproach for who among us would not be wise 
who would not be virtuous who would not be above want — Livingston. 
Was it not a delusion had it been really accomplished and could it be done 
again — Andrew Fulton. 

6. When a question is not complete before the end is reached ; 
when the whole sentence is rather one question than several ; or 
when the comma, the semicolon, or the colon, can as well be used 
within the sentence, — the interrogation-point should be put only at 
the end. 

Ex. — "Will you go, or stay?" "Which is more, — three-fourths or four- 
fifths ?" " Doth thy heart heave with emotions of thankfulness to God, for 
making the earth so fair, so redolent of beauty in its garniture of flowers ; and 
for having scattered these silent teachers up and down the world as orators of 
perfume, and links of beauty, to bind our souls to nature in all times and where- 
soever we may be ?" — Parker. Here some punctuators would have put an 
interrogation-point after flowers ; but the semicolon is better. 

Exercises. — Did he travel for health or for pleasure Who is worse he 
who cheats or he who steals Where are your gibes now your gambols your 
songs your flashes of merriment that were wont to set the table in roar 

7. The interrogation-point is sometimes inserted with curves, to 
doubt the truth of something without formally saying so. 

Ex. — " If the immortal Bacon — the wisest, greatest, meanest (?), of mankind- 
disgraced the judgment-seat," etc. — Edinburgh Review. 

6. EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

1. The exelamaCioii-pofBit is put after parts expressing 
emotion, — such as surprise, joy, grief, anger, etc. — very much as the 
interrogation-point is put after parts denoting inquiry. 
■ Ex. — "Lo! Newton, priest of nature, shines afar, 

Scans the wide world, and numbers every star!" — Campbell. 
" Fair star of evening I splendor of the west ! 
Star of my country ! on the horizon's brink 
Thou hangest." 
" Now press them ! now, ye Trojans, steed-renowned, 
Rush on ! break through the Grecian rampart, hurl 
At once devouring -flames into the fleet!" — Gowper's Homer, 
" Such a chirping and twittering ! Such diving down from the nest, and 
flying up again ! Such a wheeling round in circles, and talking to the young 
ones all the while 1" — Sydney Smith. "0 thou disconsolate widow ! robbed, so 
cruelly robbed, and in so short a time, both of a husband and a son ! what must 
be the plenitude of thy suffering!" — Dr. Nott : Funeral of Hamilton. 

Hence we see that exclamatory sentences may be either declarative, interroga- 
tive, or imperative in form ; and they are also often elliptical or fragmentary. 



PUNCTUATION. EXCLAMATION-POINT. 333 

Exercises. — " What was the cause of our wasting forty millions of money 
and sixty thousand lives The American war What was it that produced the 
French rescript and a French war The American war For what are we 
about to incur an additional debt of twelve or fourteen millions This cursed 
cruel diabolical American war " — Fox. 

" Gentlemen what does this mean Chops and tomato sauce Tours Pick- 
wick Chops Gracious heavens And tomato sauce Is the happiness of a sensi- 
tive and confiding female to be trifled away by such shallow artifices as these " 

2. It is used after unusually solemn and earnest invocations or 
addresses. 

Ex. — " blessed Health ! thou art above all gold and treasure !" " Spare me, 
merciful God !" " Conscript Fathers I I do not rise to spend the night in words." 

Exercises. — Thy doom is sealed presumptuous slave Truth friendship my 
country sacred objects sentiments dear to my heart accept my last sacrifice 

3. The point is generally used after an interjection. 

Ex. — "Tohol yoho! through lanes, groves, and villages." — Dickens. 

But that the point must be placed after every interjection except 0, eh, and hey, 
is not true. 0, immediately preceding the name of something addressed, has usu- 
ally no point. When interjections are spoken of as mere words, they should not 
be followed by the exclamation-point ; as, Ah, 0, alas, ho. 

4. We often find fragments quoted and made exclamatory or interjec- 
tional ; and sometimes parts are quoted with their exclamatory sense. 

Ex. — " ' Tried and convicted traitor !' Who says this?" " l Traitor!' I go ; 
but I return." "We should realize, by act, the words 'awake! arise!' in as 
quick and immediate succession as they were uttered by the poet." 

Exercises. — u ' To the guillotine to the guillotine ' exclaimed the female 
part of the rabble" "Then the first sound went forth 'They come they 
come ' " Ui Tramp tramp ' was suddenly heard on the stairs Who could it be " 

5. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether the exclamation-point 
should supersede other points ; but the writer, knowing his own meaning, 
can best decide for himself. He should first consider whether the sen- 
tence is sufficiently emotional for the point ; and then, in what part, or in 
how much of the sentence, the emotion is chiefly comprised, putting the 
point at the end of such part. 

As to the length of the sentence, or as to how much shall be put into one ex- 
clamation, the same principles will apply here that apply to interrogative sen- 
tences. 

Ex. — " Well, to be sure, how much I have fagged through ! — the only won- 
der is, that one head can contain it all!" "And then there are my Italian 
songs ! which every body allows I sing with taste." 

** L Strange,' murmurs the dying invalid, looking out from his window upon 
the world — ' strange ! how the beauty and mystery of all nature are heightened 
by the near prospect of that coming darkness which will sweep them all away!" 

Exercises, — How ugly a person appears upon whose reputation some awk- 
ward aspersion hangs and how suddenly his countenance clears up with his 
character home magical all powerful home how strong must have been thy 
influence when thy faintest memory could cause these bronzed heroes of a thou- 
sand fights to weep like tearful women 

To justify the use of this point after each of the several parts of a sentence, 
they must be deeply emotional ; as, " What ! attribute the sacred sanction of God 
and nature to the massacres of the Indian scalping-knife ! to the cannibal savage, 
torturing, murdering, devouring, drinking the blood of his mangled victims !" 



3.34 PUNCTUATION. EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

6. When an interjection or other emotional word is to be expressive 
chiefly in connection with other words, it is better to defer the exclama- 
tion-point as nearly as possible to the end. When deep emotion belongs 
chiefly to the whole of a phrase or sentence, it is generally better expressed 
by one point at the end, than by the hitching and interrupting caused by 
a multitude of points within. 

Ex. — "Charge, Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!" "How meek, how 
patient, the mild creature lies!" "But, thou best of parents! wipe thy 
tears." "Ah me!" not, "Ah! me." "Ha, ha, hal" "Alas, my noble boy! 
that thou shouldst die !" 

" Oh ! you went with him, did you ?" — Goodrich. 
" 0, what a sweet place grandmother's orchard is!" — E. Sargent 
Exercises. — Under such circumstances I never would lay down my arms 
never never never Macbeth Macbeth Macbeth beware Macduff Friends 
Romans countrymen lend me your ears William William (can't you hear 
me ) bring the gun Alas sir how fell you beside your five wits 
"Rejoice! rejoice ! the summer months are coming ; 
Rejoice ! rejoice ! the birds begin to sing!" 
" G-entle river, gentle river! tell us whither do you glide, 
Through the green and sunny meadows, with your sweetly murmuring tide ?" 
In the former couplet, one exclamatory word requires as great a pause as the 
other, and the parts express much joy ; in the latter, the second phrase requires 
a greater pause than the first, and the parts express less emotion than those of 
the other. 

V. The exclamation-point is preferred to the interrogation-point, 
when the idea of emotion predominates over that of inquiry. 

Ex. — " Where is the man, where is the philosopher, who could so live, suffer, 
and die, without weakness and without ostentation I — Rousseau. 

This is not addressed to any particular person for an answer ; the author ex- 
pects no answer, and means to give none himself. The sentence expresses his 
feelings rather than his doubts, or the interrogative arrangement is hut a stronger 
mode of stating a declarative exclamation ; hence marked !, and not ?. 

There is sometimes nice choosing between these two points, and it is then a 
matter of little consequence which is preferred. 

" Canst thou command the Lightnings, that they may go, and say unto thee, ' Here we are T " 
" Canst thou command the Lightnings, that they may go, and say unto thee, ' Here we are !' " 

Perhaps the latter punctuation is preferable, for the form of the sentence is 
but a stronger mode of saying, You can not do this. 

To make a declarative sentence a little more emphatic than usual, it is some- 
times stated in the interrogative or exclamatory form, without the interrogation 
or exclamation point. See p. 3 It. 

8. To express great wonder, irony, or contempt, two or more ex- 
clamation-points are sometimes used together. 

Ex. — " Selling off below cost! ! great sacrifices II!" "Arrest a gentleman ! ! ! 
take a warrant out against a gentleman ! ! — you villain ! What do you mean ?" 
"Reduce Providence to an alternative I ! !" — Sydney Smith. 

9. The exclamation-point is also used sometimes like the inter- 
rogation-point, to denote sneeringly the unbelief of the speaker. 

Ex. — " The measures which he introduced to Congress, and which ought in 
have been carried by overwhelming majorities ( ? ), proved him to have been to 
every sense a great statesman ( ! )." 



PUNCTUATION. DASH. 335 

7. DASH. 

The dash seems to be used, in many modern books, wherever the author, from 
ignorance of the laws of punctuation, does not precisely know what point should 
be used. "We sometimes find pages on which it is used so often that a lively 
fancy might easily conceive them to have been printed from a gridiron. But it 
seems that even long ago the world was very dashy ; for an old poet says, — 

"All modern trash is 
Set forth with numerous breaks and dashes." 

The dash is generally a sort of graphic or emotional mark, indicating such a 
suspense in the sense as will have a peculiar or important effect on the memory, 
curiosity, or expectation of the reader. It has sometimes the force of a semi- 
exclamation-point used within the sentence. The G-ermans call it the thought- 
stroke, that is, the mark which aims to set the reader to thinking. 

Dr. Mandeville says, it denotes unusual structure or significance ; we should 
rather say, it denotes transition or emotion. 

Though much abused, the dash is nevertheless an excellent point when put 
in its right places, all of which we shall endeavor to show. 



1. The das Si is often preferred to the comma, the semicolon, or 
the colon, to express unusual emphasis or suppressed emotion. When 
thus used, it appeals to the reader's reflection. 

Ex. — " They conquered — but Bozzaris fell, 

Bleeding at every vein." — Halleck. 
"And the best plan to silence and admonish them, 
Would be to give a ' party' — and astonish them." — Id. 
It is thus often used to show witty transition. 
Exercises. — This world 'tis true was made for Csesar but for Titus too. 

a. In this sense also, it sometimes supersedes, within the sentence, 
the interrogation-point or the exclamation-point, or is simply a little 
weaker. 

Ex. — " Have I not seen you leaden-eyed — clay-pated — almost dumb with 
pain hammering at your temples — degraded by nausea tugging at your stomach 
— your hand shaking like a leaf — your mouth like the mouth of an oven — and 
your tongue, I'm sure of it, like burnt shoe-leather?" — D. Jerrold. That is to 
say, Deny it, if you can ! The dash here appeals with great force to the con- 
science of his drunken companion. 

2. In its emotional sense, it is also sometimes inserted between 
parts too closely related for any grammatical point. 

Ex. — "Yet this — is Rome, that sat on her seven hills, and from her throne ot 
beauty ruled the world!" — Mitford. 

"Is it like?— like whom?— 
The things that mount the rostrum with a skip, 
And then — skip down again." — Gowper. 

Exercises. — This bond doth give thee here no jot of blood. — Shakespeare. 
And life's piano now for me hath lost its sweetest tones sir 
Since my Matilda Bjrown became some fellow's Mrs. Jones sir 

3. In its emotional sense, it is sometimes added to other points. 



PUNCTUATION. DASH. 

Sometimes it is added merely to lengthen the pause a little, or to 
mark transition. 

Ex. — " He saw — whatever thou hast seen ; 

Enjoyed, — but his delights are fled." — Montgomery. 
" It thunders; — but it thunders to preserve." — Young. 
Such double points as the foregoing are now often avoided, by using simply 
the dash or the next greater common point. Tlie comma with the dash is more 
emphatic than the semicolon ; the semicolon with the dash is more emphatic than 
the colon; but the semicolon and the colon are neater points. 

"He said; then fall before their sight produced the beast, and lo ! — 'twas 
white." — Merrick. " I pause for a reply. — None ? Then none have I offended. — 
I have done no more to Csesar, than you should do to Brutus." — Shakespeare. 
"And enterprises of great pith and moment, 
"With this regard their currents turn awry, 
And lose the name of action. — Soft, you now ! 
The fair Ophelia. — Nymph, in thy orisons 
- . Be all my sins remembered." — Shah. : Hamlet. (Transition.) 

The dash here avoids the commencement of a new paragraph. 

" Who next ? — 0, my little friend, you are just let loose from school, and 
come hither to scrub your blooming face, and drown the memory of certain taps 
of the ferule, and of other schoolboy troubles, in a draught from the Town Pump." 
— Hawthorne. 

11 The principal parts of a sentence are usually three ; namely, the subject, 
or nominative, — the attribute, or finite verb, — and the case put after, or the ob- 
ject governed by the verb: as, * Crimes deserve punishment." 1 " — Goold Brown. 

" The possessive case may denote the relation of persons ; as, ' William's 
cousin; — or the relation of the doer to the thing done ; as, ' Solomon's Temple ;' 
—or the relation of a whole to its parts; as, 'a horse's head.' " — Greene. 

Here Mr. Brown needed a point greater than the comma and less than the semi- 
colon, and so he added the dash to the comma. Mr. Greeue needed a point greatei 
than the semicolon, and so he added the dash to it : he might better have used the 
colon. There is a tendency to avoid double points. 

4. When elliptical or heterogeneous parts are brought emotionally 
into one sentence, they are generally separated by the dash. 

Ex. — " Came home solus — very high wind — lightning — moonshine — solitary 
stragglers muffled in cloaks — white houses — clouds hurrying over the sky — 
altogether very poetical." — Byron. 

Exercises. — But you are hungry want a breakfast turn into a restaurant 
call for ham eggs and coffee then your bill six dollars California. 

5. It is used to show suspense or delay. 

Ex. — " The pulse fluttered — stopped — went on — throbbed — stopped again — 
moved — stopped. — Shall I go on ? — No." — Sterne. 

Exercises. — One pressed his antagonist back back back till there was but 
another step of plank behind him between him and nothing. 

6. It is sometimes imitative, and has, besides, the emotional sense 
which was first mentioned. 

Ex. — "Pop! There — the cork 's drawn. Gurgle — gurgle — gurgle — good — 
good — good — No ! it is in vain ; there is no type — there are no printed sounds 
(allow me the concetto) — to describe the melody, tfie cadence, of the out-pouring 
bottle. ' ' — D. Jerrold. 



PUNCTUATION. DASH. 337 

Exercises, — The clock went tick tick tick tick and I went nid-nod nod- 
ding nidding till suddenly the door-bell rang and startled me from my 
drowsiness 

7. It is used to show hesitation or faltering. 

Ex. — "I — I myself— was in love — with — Pmscilla!" — Hawthorne. 
Exercises. — He was very sorry for it was extremely concerned it should 
happen so but as it was necessary a 

8. It is put at the end of a sentence left unfinished, whether from 
interruption, faltering, or any other cause. 

Ex.— " ' She was ' 

' A great fool,' said a trooper." 
" ' Here lies the great' — False marble ! where ?" — Young. 
" It was to inquire by what title General — but, catching himself — Mr. "Wash- 
ington chose to be addressed." — Irving. 

Exercises. — These are ah no these were the gazetteers. 

11 Gil Bias. Your G-race's sermons never fail to he admired but 

"Archbishop. It lacked the strength the Do you not agree with me sir" 

9. It is also used before and after each interruption, and before 
echoes, that is, expressions- emphatically resumed. 

Ex. — "I take — eh! oh! — as much exercise — eh! — as I can, Madam Gout. 
You know my sedentary state." — Franklin. u All seemed very well ; but — for 
there was one of those dreadful ' buts' in the case — but he had a very small 
amount of money to provide a home." "No, sir; I always thought Robertson 
would be crashed by his own weight — would be buried under his own orna- 
ments." — Quarterly Review. 

10. In its transition sense, it is used to enclose a parenthesis, es- 
pecially when this is rather long, and has other points within it. 

Ex. — " Their female companion — faded, though still young — possessed, never- 
theless, a face whose expression frequently drew my gaze." — Bulwer. 

Exercises. — Tom Moore wrote politics at times pointed bitter rankling 
politics but he was really no politician at heart Setting aside a rare virtue 
in this clime her aristocratic antecedents she set up as a baker for the public 

11. If the sentence is broken by the parenthesis where it required 
some ordinary point, this point is placed before each parenthetic 
dash ; otherwise, simply the dashes are used. 

Ex. — "If the immortal Bacon — 'the wisest, greatest, meanest (?), of man- 
kind 1 — disgraced the judgment-seat, and stained his own great name, — not, we 
believe, to prevent, but to expedite, justice, — was not bribery, which stained 
the ermine on infinitely meaner shoulders, also the vice of his time ? — Edinburgh 
Review. 

" I was an auditor — auditress, I mean — of one of his lectures." — Hawthorne. 
Here the latter dash has superseded the comma. " Though I have given eight 
pounds a year, — would you believe it ? — I have never once succeeded."- — Jerrold. 
44 But the curate — alas, poor man ! — he has been to college, and is a gentleman." 
— Id. The interrogation and exclamation points are not superseded. 

12. It shows the transition of structure when a sentence is drop- 
ped in one form, and resumed in another. 

Ex. — " The noble indignation with which Emmett repelled the charge of 



338 PUNCTUATION. — DASH. 






treason against his country, the eloquent vindication of his name, and his pa- 
thetic appeals to posterity, — all these entered deeply into every generous breast." 
— Irving. 

At these culminating points of sentences, the colon was formerly often used. 

Exercises. — The crisp snow and the woolly clouds the delightful rustle of 
the summer forest and the waving of the autumn corn the glory of the sunset 
and the wonder of the rainbow the world would have wanted these had not 
the winds been taught to do their Master's bidding Dickens. 

13. It is used where that is or namely can be conceived to be 
omitted. 

Ex. — " The story is not deficient in that which all stories should have, to be * 
perfectly delightful, — a fortunate conclusion." 

Exercises. — On this was he willing to stake all he had character and life 
It had literally nothing to do beyond what I have said to flow to bubble to look 
limpid to murmur amid flowers and sweet perfumes 

In this sense it is also often used alone ; as, " It is just what might have been 
expected from its author — a very juvenile performance." — Edinburgh Review. 
When the parts are long, the semicolon is often preferred. 

14. It is placed, with the comma, after a loose series of nomina- 
tive terms leading to an important predicate. 

Ex. — " The same vigor of thought ; the same form of expression ; the short 
sentences ; the calm, bold, and collected manner ; the air of solemn dignity ; the 
deep, sepulchral, unimpassioned voice, — have all been developed, not changed, 
even to the intenser bitterness of his irony." — Wilde : Webster. 

15. On the same principle it is sometimes placed before a term 
relating to a series of others, to show its common dependence on all 
of them. 

Ex. — "All business ceased, the towns in silence lay, 
Men brooded deep in vengeance and dismay, 
And naught Was heard save woman's wail of woe, — 
As spread the tidings from the Alamo." 
Without the dash, it might seem- that the last line relates only to the line pre- 
ceding it. 

a. But when the parts of a series are very long or very numer- 
ous, it may be best to use the dash after each of them, to show their 
common dependence on something remote. 
Ex. — " When lawyers take what they would give, 

And doctors give what they would take, — 
When city fathers eat to live, 

Save when they fast for conscience' sake," — etc. — Holmes. 
This stanza, with seven others like it, depends on a concluding one. 

16. The dash is sometimes used at the beginning of renewed dis- 
course viewed as the continuance of previous discourse left un- 
finished, or after a digression. 

Ex. — " But to return to my mother," etc. — See Sterne's Works; Holmes's 

Autocrat It here has it's transition sense. 

, In imitation of a French custom, we now often see it at the left of newspaper 
paragraphs, to show that they are new. When thus used, it has both its emo- 
tional and transition sense or is simply a little more modest than the hand used 
in show-bills, etc. 



PUNCTUATION. DASH. 339 

17. In dialogue not having the speaker's name, nor distinguished 
by breaks, it is generally used to show the transition from one 
speaker's saying to that of another. 

Ex. — "You have been my two-fisted valet these thirty years. — Hem I — 
Hem? What do you mean by hem?" — Coleman. 

Exercises* — "In combustibility it agrees with cannel coal It does. Have 
you examined its fracture I have." 

So, when but one person fictitiously represents two ; as, "When arrived? — 
this evening. How long do I stay? — uncertain. What are my plans? — let us 
discuss them." (Questions of a friend anticipated and answered.) 

18. Hence it is' also placed between sentences which are not the 
consecutive thoughts of their author on the same subject. 

Ex. — " 'The wound,' said Lord Bacon, 'is not dangerous, unless we poison 
it with our remedies. — The wrongs of the Puritans may hardly be dissembled or 
excused. — On subjects of religion he was always for moderate counsels.' " — 
Bancroft "Both subjects sometimes come before the verb ; as, "'I know not 
who he is." — " Who did you say it was?" — "I know not how to tell thee who I 
am." — Goold Brown. 

When examples are each enclosed by quotation-marks, I do not think they need 
the dash. 

19. In books, it is placed after each period that separates the head- 
ings of a series ; in newspapers, it is thus used without any other point. 

Ex. — Heavy Rain. — Camp. — Buffalo Hunt. — Osage Indians. — Irving. 
u Arrival of the Great Eastern — News from Europe — State of the Money Market " etc. 

20. It is placed after side-heads; and also before the authority or 
credit, when in the same line with the end of the paragraph. 

Ex. — "The Abuse of the Imagination. — He who can not command his 
thoughts, must not hope to control his actions. All mental superiority originates 
in habits of thinking." — Jane Taylor. 

' ' Howard — Burke. Milton — Quarterly Rev lew. ' ' — E. Sargent. 

In these senses it is not always needed, and is often omitted. 

21. It is used after a line, or a part of a line, when connected with 
something begun or resumed in the line below : — 

Ex. — "My Dear Boy, — 

" Do you choose your friend, like an orange, by its golden 
outside, and the power of yielding much when well squeezed," etc. — Punch. 
In this sense it is generally not needed, and is often omitted. 

22. It is often used to separate the number of a lesson, chapter, 
or section, from the title placed after it. 

Ex—" Lesson LXII.— The Power of Music." 

In this sense it is not always needed, and is sometimes omitted. 

It is used to show the omission of letters or figures. 

Ex. — "See pages 250 — 258;" i. e., all the pages, beginning with 250 to 258 
inclusive. " See pp. 250-58." See p. 352. 

In arithmetic, it should rather not be used, especially when it might be mis- 
taken for the minus sign. 

It is sometimes used when none of the four chief points, or none of the three 
minor points, is altogether appropriate ; or so as to supply whatever point the 
punctuation system may happen to need. 



340 PUNCTUATION. — CURVES. 

8. CURVES. 

1. The curves are used to enclose something hastily thrown 
in, which is merely incidental or explanatory, and may be omitted 
without injuring the grammatical construction. What is enclosed, 
is called a parenthesis, A parenthesis is like a by-path to the 
main road. 

Ex. — " Mr. Plausible (to borrow a name from John Bunyan) wishes the Hon. 
Mr. Spendthrift to represent the county of ~." — Eclectic Magazine. 

" Next day the landlord inquires (and all landlords are inquisitive), and after 
inquiry talks (and all landlords are talkative), concerning the private business of 
his new guest." — lb. 

" I send you, my dear child, (and you will not doubt) very sincerely, the 
wishes of the season." — Chesterfield. 

The first and the last example tend to show that curves are sometimes indis- 
pensable, for setting off what might otherwise be viewed as a part of the sentence 
itself. 

2. Letters or figures, used as marks of reference or for number- 
ing, are often enclosed by curves, especially when their meaning 
might otherwise be uncertain or ambiguous. 

Ex. — "(1.) By using different words; (2.) By difference of termination," etc. 
— & & Greene. " (a.) What it does ; (b.) What it is." — Id. Curves thus used, 
are often unnecessary ; and whenever they are so, they should be omitted. 

3. The curves are now often preferred to brackets, for enclosing 
explanations or incidental remarks, whether given by the author or 
the copyist, especially when they stand within the paragraph. See 
under Brackets. 

Ex — " Orthoepy, a word derived from the Greek orthon (upright) and epo 
(I speak), signifies the right utterance of words." — Sargent. " The Comma (,) de- 
notes," etc. — Id. " But it is objected by the Senator from Tennessee (Mr. Grundy), 
that the construction which I contend for, &c, &c. (Applause.)" — Cong. Globe. 

" ' If they persist in reading this book to a conclusion, {impossible !) they 
will no doubt have to struggle with feelings of awkwardness ; (ha! ha! ha!) 
they will look round for poetry, (ha! ha! ha!) and will be induced to inquire 
by what species of courtesy these attempts have been permitted to asstfme that 
title.' Ha! ha! ha!" — E. A. Poe, laughing as he reads. 



The dash is now often used, and also the comma, in stead of the 
curves. 

The dash should be preferred when the parenthesis coalesces rather 
closely, in sense and grammatical construction, with the rest of the sen- 
tence ; or when it is rather emotional or emphatic. 

The curves should be preferred when the parenthesis coalesces little or 
least, in sense and grammatical construction, with the rest of the sen- 
tence; or when the parenthesis is to be read in a very perceptible 
undertone. 

The comma should be preferred when it will serve as well as either of 
the other marks. 

Ex. — <{ I had given a third part of my wealth — four cents — for it." (Emo- 
tional or emphatic: it draws the attention strongly to how great the sum was.) 



PUNCTUATION. CURVES. 341 

" I had given a third part of my wealth (four cents) for it." This takes the 
least notice of the sum ; it may even imply that the person addressed, already 
knew how much that third was. 

" I had given a third part of my wealth, four cents, for it." This is inter- 
mediate, in sense, between the other two. 

4. When a parenthesis occurs within another, curves are usually 
applied to one, and dashes to the other ; the less coalescent one 
taking the curves. But this rule is not always observed. 

Ex' — " The little party were still lingering in the deep recess of the large 
bay-window — which (in itself of dimensions that would have swallowed up a 
moderate-sized London parlor) held the great round tea-table with all appliances 
and means to boot — -to behold the beautiful summer moon shed on the sward so 
silvery a lustre, and the trees cast so quiet a shadow." — Harpers Magazine. 

" The branches of knowledge taught in our schools,— reading — in which I 
include the spelling of our language — a firm, sightly, legible hand-writing, and 
the elemental rules of arithmetic, — are of greater value than all the rest which 
is taught at school." — E. Everett. 



5. The parts embosoming a parenthesis, are punctuated as if 
they had it not. 

Ex. — " The good man (and good men not only think good thoughts, but do 
good deeds) lives more in a year, than a selfish, covetous man in a century." 
{The good man lives, etc.) 

** It behooves me to say that these three (who, by the way, are all dead) pos- 
sessed great general ability, and had respectively received a good education." — : 
Harpers Magazine. 

6. If a point is required at the end of the first part, it may be 
placed before each curve, if the structure will allow it. Though 
many punctuators prefer to insert the point but once, and imme- 
diately after the latter curve. 

Ex. — " This book is written, or supposed to be written, (for we would speak 
timidly of the mysteries of superior beings,) by the celebrated Mrs. Hannah 
More." — Sydney Smith. 

" My sisters went to the best schools in town ; (and here let me acknowl- 
edge, that, knowing our former position and present difficulties, everywhere 
friends turned up for us;) they had all they wanted, as far as books and masters 
were concerned." — Eclectic Review. 

"Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret to the proud man himself), 
is the most ordinary spring of action among men." — John Wilson. 

7. But when the parenthesis is too closely related to the former 
part to be cut off from it by the point, then the point must be 
placed after the latter curve. 

Ex. — "Gladiator (Lat. gladius, a sword); a sword-player, a prize-fighter." — 
Sargent. " The Nominative independent or absolute (absolutus, released, free, 
from grammatical structure). " — S. S. Greene. 

8. The parenthesis is punctuated, within itself, as usual ; and if 
it requires, at its end, an interrogation or exclamation point, or a 
different point from that of the part before it, each part takes its 
proper point and before the curve. 



342 PUNCTUATION. BRACKETS. 

"Ex. — " For the bee never idles, but labors all day, 

And thinks (wise little bee I ) work better than play." 
" I gave (and who would not have given ?) my last dollar to the miserable 
beggar." 

" The Frenchman, first in literary fame, 
(Mention him, if you please. "Voltaire ? — The same.) 
With spirit, genius, eloquence, supplied, 

Lived long, wrote much, laughed heartily, and died." — Cowpe?\ • 
"My mother grew worse, and France also (Moscow — 1813!); we were in 
extreme penury." — Eclectic Review. The punctuation of the foregoing sentence 
is questionable, yet I believe it brings out the sense to the best advantage. 

9. When a dash, relating to either the first broken part or the 
parenthesis, is placed after the first broken part, it is also generally 
placed before the second broken part. 

Ex. — " I received an office as junior clerk in — (one name will do as well as 
another) — in Her Majesty's Waste-Paper Office." — British Review. (Significant 
or emphatic dash, relating to the parts separated, and showing reiteration.) 

10. When an entire and distinct sentence or phrase is made 
parenthetic, the period or other point should be placed before, not 
after, the latter curve. See the last example. 

9. BRACKETS. 

1. The brackets are properly used to enclose what one person 
puts into the writing of another. 

Ex. — " Yours [the British] is a nation of unbounded resources, — -a nation 
from whose empire (and it has been your proudest boast) the sun never dis- 
appears." (Explanation.) 

" Do you know if [whether] he is at home ?" (Correction.) 
Abbotsford, May 12th, [1820]. (Omission.) 

"Lesson LV. — Llewellyn and his Dog. 

" [A true story, showing the lamentable effects of hasty wrath.] 
" The spearman heard the bugle sound, and cheerily smiled the morn, 
And many a brach and many a hound attend Llewellyn's horn," etc. 
" [Here Mr. Clay was interrupted by the Senator from Michigan.]" 

2. The writer himself may sometimes use the brackets to enclose 
some explanation, direction, or observation ; especially when it 
stands apart by itself, and has so little connection with the text 
that it can hardly be considered a part of it. 

Ex. — "Bosina. [Between the scenes.] To work, my hearts of oak, to work ! 
Here the sun is half an hour high, and not a stroke struck yet. 

[Enters singing, followed by reapers.]" 
But thus in the latest books : — 
"Don Luis. Kepose awhile, I will return with speed. 

[Exit hastily.'] 
" Oliver. {Advancing) How fell Don Luis to such poverty ?" — Boker. 
Sometimes but one bracket is used, as in White's Shakespeare. 
" Now, like to whelps, we crying run away. 

[A fJiort alarum." 
" Dismission, ( — mish'-un,) n. [Lat. dismissio.]" — N. Webster. 



PUNCTUATION. HYPHEN. 343 

3. The writer^ himself may sometimes use brackets to show what 
is digression or interpolation. 

Ex. — See Dr. Holmes's " Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table." 
" I never liked him, never, in my days 1" 
[" 0, yes! you did," said Ellen with a sob.] 
" There always was a something in his ways — " 
["So sweet — so kind," said Ellen with a throb.]— Hood. 
Brackets are so uncouth that there is some tendency to use the carves in their 
stead, when the interpolated part, though within the paragraph, is not liable to be 
misunderstood, if distinguished by the curves. 

Ex.—" Patrick Henry wound up by one of those daring flights of declamation 



_eighborhood of the Chair) — ' may 
profit by their example,' added Henry. < Sir, if this be treason (bowing to the 
speaker), make the most of it.' " — Irving. 

10. HYPHEN. 

1. The hyphen is placed at the end of a syllable of a word so 
long that a part must be put into the next line. Words are divided 
into syllables according to their pronunciation and composition, 
the latter yielding to the former whenever they plainly disagree. 
See pp. 77-8. 

It is sometimes used to show the syllables of a word ; as, Dis-grace-ful, co-operate. 

2. The hyphen joins the parts of compound words that do not 
coalesce sufficiently to be united without it. 

Ex. — " Look at pretty, ten-year-old, rosy-cheeked, golden- haired Mary, gazing 
with all the blue brightness of her eyes, at that large dew-drop." — Prof. Wilson. 



The compounding of words depends on the sense ; the con- 
solidation on the pronunciation ; and both depend somewhat on 
custom. 

3. A compound word should denote one idea rather than two or 

more, or it should have a meaning different from that of the separated 

words, or it should imply a change in the part of speech, or it should 

be known as the familiar term for a certain object or attribute. 

Ex. — " Horse-fly, orang-outang, gooseberry, to-night, wild-rose, slippery-elm, 
apple-orchard, sewing-machine, humming-bird ; a black-bearded man ; a sine-gua- 
non condition ; the end-all and be-all ; a setting-forth of." 

There is generally the greatest difficulty in deciding, when the former word has 
somewhat the nature of an adjective. If it denotes the substance, or is merely de- 
scriptive, and not a part of the name, there is no compounding ; as, a gold cup, moun- 
tain billows, saltwater fish, village bells : but, if otherwise, there is ; as, school-room^ 
watering-place. When the former word may suggest either the idea of composing, 
or else that of belonging to, relating to, or connected with, the latter sense is usually 
distinguished from the former by compounding ; as, a glass house, a glass-house. 
In general, when the terms have passed into the nomenclature of some particular 
art, science, or occupation, the elements are compounded. There are some excep- 
tions to this entire paragraph. 



344 PUNCTUATION. HYPHEN. 

4. A part common to two or more consecutive compounds, 
should either be left separate, or, to avoid ambfguity, be made a 
part of each. 

Ex. — u Eiding and dancing schools ;" or, " Eiding-schools and dancing-schools;" 
not, " Eiding and dancing-schools," nor, " Eiding- and dancing-schools." 

An epithet already compound, is not usually joined to its noun ; as, M high- 
water mark ;" " whalebone rod." When there is a bunch of compounds, it is often 
better to separate or to consolidate some of them ; as, " master, guarter^master, 
quartermaster-general ;" "creek, mill-creek, mill-creek coal-field, mill-creek cannel- 
coal, mill-creek cannelcoal-fieldP 

Pronunciation relates to the letters, syllables, and accents. 

5. If the parts coalesce with the smooth flow of syllables making 

one word ; if there is no liability of improperly joining letters of 

one to the other ; if there is one chief accent, the other being no 

stronger than an ordinary secondary accent ; if the parts are not 

too long ; and if the parts are not too new in combination to be 

easily understood, — they are consolidated. 

Ex. — " Everlasting, graveyard, gentleman, highwayman, forthcoming, bare- 
faced." But, " Soul-stirring, ant-hill, peep-hole, sand-eel, remainder-man, knit- 
ting-needle, spelling-book, cheese-press." " Homesickness, " accent yielded by the 
longer word to the shorter ; u council-room," accent not yielded, nor next to the 
hyphen-place. 



a. A phrase made «an epithet, is always compounded. 

Ex. — " A two-foot ruler;" " The tree-and-cloud-shadowed river." 
But when the former word can not be conceived otherwise than as an adverb 
modifying the next word, the two are not compounded ; as, " Newly varnished fur- 
niture ;" •' Love ill requited." 

b. Idiomatic phrases are usually not compounded. 
Ex. — u By and by ; to and fro ; tit for tat ; out and out." 

c. A foreign phrase that is made an epithet, or that has so lost the mean- 
ing of its parts as to be Anglicized, is hyphened ; but if its words remain 
separately significant as they stand, it is left uncompounded, and often 
expressed in Italics. 

Ex. — " Piano-forte, camera-obscura, billet-doux, ex-post-facto laws ; habeas cor- 
pus ; scire facias ; nux vomica." 

d. A phrase, having a possessive, and used as a proper name, remains 
uncompounded ; if it is a somewhat unusual common name, with a change 
of the original meaning, the apostrophe and hyphen are used ; and if it is 
a very common term, the parts are consolidated, and the hyphen is omitted. 

Ex. — "Cook's Inlet, Barrow's Strait; Eupert's-drops, lamb's-wool ; ratsbane, 
beeswax." Capital letters are sometimes a sort of substitute for the hyphen. 

e. Cardinal numerals are hyphened from twenty to hundred. With 
ordinals used as nouns, they are usually compounded, though sometimes 
needlessly. 

Ex. — " One thousand two hundred and eighty-seven." " Two-thirds, three- 
fourths, five twenty-sixths." 

/. Certain words consisting of rhymes, or of syllables combined for the 
sake of the sound, are generally consolidated if the parts are two mono- 



PUNCTUATION. HYPHEN. 345 

syllables ; and sometimes if they are dissyllables. They are hyphened in 
other cases. 

Ex. — " Picnic, hodgepodge, powwow, zigzag, chitchat, huggermugger, helter- 
skelter, wishy-washy, hurdy-gurdy, ninny-hammer.'" 

g. A prefix is generally consolidated with the rest of the word. 
Ex. — "Overflow, undergraduate, semicircle." 

h. Prefixes, or similar parts, are not consolidated with the rest of the 
word, if they stand before a capital letter ; if they are followed by a greater 
pause than ordinary syllables thus situated, or by a pause showing the 
separate significance of the parts ; or if they should be kept apart to pre- 
serve the sense or pronunciation. 

Ex. — "Anti-Benton, pre- Adamite, Anglo-Saxon, Neo-Platonic, concavo-convex, 
proto-sulphuret, vice-admiral, electro-magnetism, reformation, re-formation, rec- 
reation, re-creation, re-revise, co-operate (also cooperate), semi-cylindrical, co-tan- 
gent, non-essential." 

i When a writer makes a new compound, or chooses one that he sup- 
poses not well known to his reader, he should generally use the hyphen. 
But, by long and general usage, compound words tend to lose the hyphen. 

Ex. — "Some of us have killed ' brown-backs' and * yellow-legs'* [birds], on the 
marshes." " Since railroads and steamboats have driven all the romance out of 
travel. 1 ' — frving. 

In doubtful cases, especially when the parts are monosyllables, it is better to 
consolidate them ; for the analogy of some eminent foreign languages — the Ger- 
man and the Greek — favors this mode of writing words. 

Familiar Explanations. — Many -colored birds have many colors each ; 
many colored birds are numerous, though they may all be of one color. A light 
s.rmed soldier is a light soldier with arms ; a light-armed soldier has light arms. 
A live oak is simply a living oak ; a live-oak is a species of evergreen oak. A 
sugar tree is made of sugar ; a sugar-tree is a maple that yields sugar. So, a 
glass house is made of glass ; a glass-house is a house in which glass is manufac- 
tured. A dancing master is a master that dances ; a dancing -master teaches 
dancing. A boarding-house has boarders ; a boarding house may seem to board. 
Lady's slipper is a shoe; lady' s-slipper is a plant. A dog's-ear is the corner of a 
leaf turned over ; a dog's ear is the ear of a dog. A bulVs-eye is a small round 
window ; a bull's eye is the eye of a bull. A crow is a black bird, but not a 
blackbird. Six and seventeen=23 ; sixteen and seventeen=33. Twenty-five cent 
pieces=25 cents; twenty five-cent pieces=$1.0Q. A horse racing is a horse in 
the act of running ; a horse-racing is a running of horses. "Time tutored age and 
love exalted youth," is very different from, u Time-tutored age and love-exalted 
youth." So is touch me not from touch-me-not. "The deep-tangled wild- 
wood;" u Battle-hymns and dirges." Without the hyphen, deep wT>uid qualify 
wildwood, not tangled ; and Battle would also refer to dirges. Hence when two 
adjectives stand before a noun, each of which might qualify it, they must be joiner 
to show that one is used adverbially to modify the other. 

Exercises. — There are four footed animals. Watch makers and glass cut- 
ters. He is a free mason. Texas abounds in humming birds and mocking birds. 
A red headed high tempered woman. The corn fields and the walnut trees. A 
paper mill is not made of paper, nor a tin peddler of tin. A white oak, a black 
oak. and a go cart. Five gallon kegs and three foot measures. The twenty- 
third and fourth trees are the best in the row. The twenty-third and twenty- 
fourth trees, &c. Steamships and boats are propelled by steam. The what and 
how much. " Crops have been much injured by the cut worm." — Newspaper. 

15* 



346 PUNCTUATION. QUOTATION-MARKS. 

11. QUOTATION-MARES. 

1. Quotation-marKs enclose what is to be presented as the 
identical word or words of some other person or writin g, 

Ex. — " I rise for information," said a member of Congress. " I am very glad 
to hear it," cried another sitting by ; "for no one needs it more." 

2. A quotation within another, is enclosed by single quotation- 
marks. 

If I wished to represent the entire foregoing paragraph as something quoted 
by me, I should write it thus : — 

" ' I rise for information,' said a member of Congress. 1 1 am very glad to hear 
it,' cried another sitting by ; 4 for no one needs it more.' " 

3. When the double and the single marks have both been used, 
they are, if needed, repeated in the same order. 

4. When many quotations occur within one another, it is better 
to leave the inner ones undistinguished by quotation-marks ; espe- 
cially if capitals can be used to show the beginning of each. 

Ex. — " Jesus answered the Jews, ' Is it not written in your law, — I said, 
Ye are gods?' " — New Testament: John x. 34. 

Mr. Wilson very properly prefers the foregoing mode of pointing to the follow- 
ing : " Jesus answered the Jews, ' Is it not written in your law, — " I said, 4 Ye are 
gods' » V " 

5. When an extract of two or more paragraphs is quoted, the in- 
troductory quotation-marks are placed before each paragraph, and 
the closing ones only after the last. 

Ex. — Some of Jefferson's rules of life are these : — 
" Never spend your money before you have it. 
" Never trouble others for what you can do yourself. 
° Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day." 

6. When something already interrogative or exclamatory is quoted, 
the closing quotation-marks follow the point ; but when something is 
quoted, and made interrogative or exclamatory afterwards, the closing- 
marks precede the point. The four common points, to avoid un- 
couth blank spaces, are always placed before the closiug quotation- 
marks. 

Ex. — He asked me, " Why do you weep ?" Why did you not say at once, 
* ; I can not go" ? 

" ' Banished from Rome' ! What 's banished but set free 
From daily contact of the things I loathe." 
Can you spell " phthisic" ? 

" Went home yesterday" ? Then I must write to him." 
Or : " ' Went home yesterday' ? Then I must write to him." 
A quotation is punctuated within itself as if it stood alone. 

7. Quotation-marks are often used in speaking of words, phrases, 
or sentences. Some writers, when quoting words from popular 
usage, insert but single quotation-marks. Italics and quotation-marks 
are often used arbitrarily, as means of distinguishing words or phrases. 



PUNCTUATION. UNDERSCORE. 347 

Ex. — The phrase " not at all," is an idiom. 

What is ■ secret', may be accidentally or intentionally so : ' hidden' and { con- 
cealed' imply something intentionally kept secret. We speak of ' a hidden plot,' 
* a concealed intention'. ' Covert' is something not avowed. It may be intended 
to be seen ; ' a covert allusion' is meant to be understood, but is not openly ex- 
pressed. — Whately. 

8. Quotation-marks are not needed, when we present in our own 
language the saying of another. 

Ex. — Randolph said, " Pay as you go." Randolph said, that we should pay 
as we go. 

• Quotation-marks may be used even when the authority itself is annexed. They 
may also be used when an author furnishes from himself such illustrations as 
might be thus distinguished if taken from other writers. Quotation-marks may 
be omitted, when deemed unnecessary or too cumbersome. In the Bible they are 
generally omitted, when the quotation stands within the sentence, and begins with 
a capital. 

12. UNDERSCORE. 

1. The underscore is used in writing, being drawn under 

what should be printed in Italics or in capitals. 

Italics are slanting letters; and they were so called because the Italians not 
only invented them, but immediately gave to the world an edition of Virgil printed 
Wholly in these letters. 

2. Italics denote, in general, emphasis or distinction. They 
direct particular attention to some word or words, or show in what 
part the point or pith of the sentence chiefly lies. 

Ex. — "¥e must fight; I repeat it, sir, we must fight." "Here /reign king, 
and, to enrage thee more, thy king and lord." 

11 An hour or two, and forth she goes, 
The school she brightly seeks ; 
She carries in her hand a rose, 

And two upon her cheeks. 1 '' — Southern Literary Messenger. 
" Of course a race-course isn't coarse, a, fine is far from fine. 11 — Hood. 

3. They are generally used to distinguish foreign words intro- 
duced among English. 

Ex. — " He was secretary pro tempore. 11 

"My foolish heart beats pit-a-pat — sic omnia vincit amor. 11 

4. They are generally used to distinguish what is spoken of as a 
mere letter, word, phrase, or sentence. 

Ex. — "A does want ye to make it aye, — 

There 's but one p in peas. 1 ' — Hood. 

" Which may be applied to phrases or clauses, but that only to nouns or pro- 
nouns." " That he should lie more careful is a substantive clause, in the 

nominative case," etc. 

5. The names of boats, ships, newspapers, and magazines, or other 
periodical literature, are usually printed in Italics ; the names of books 
seldom need this mode of distinction, but they are sometimes quoted. 

Ex. — a The Neptune sailed yesterday." u An article in the New -York Mer- 
cury 11 "G-ibbon's Decline and Eall of the Roman Empire." Thomson's " Seasons." 

Credits and authorities annexed to quoted paragraphs, are also generally r rinted 
in Italics or in small capitals. 



348 PUNCTUATION. 0BS3RVATI0NS. 

In the common English Bible, Italics show what words were not in the original. 

When a sentence or paragraph is to be expressed in Italics, Roman or 
capital letters must be used to distinguish any part of it. 

Ex. — " Time is a measured portion of indefinite duration." — Olmsted. 

To denote still greater emphasis or distinction than Italics would express, 
capital letters should be used. Italics show what is emphatic ; small capitals, 
what is more emphatic ; and capitals, what is very emphatic. Draw the line under 
once, to denote Italics ; twice, to denote small capitals ; three times, to de- 



note CAPITALS; and four times, to denote ITALIC CAPITALS, or orna- 
mental letters. ~~ 



OBSERVATIONS. 

There is probably not, in the compass of human knowledge, a more chaotic 
subject than punctuation ; and we might present many critical and useful re- 
marks upon it, but our want of space will allow only a few. 

Punctuation is influenced — 1. By the sense; 2. By the delivery, or the pause 
required ; 3. By the points elsewhere required ; 4. By the connectives or sup- 
pressed words; 5. By the length of the parts to be punctuated; 6. By the posi- 
tion of the parts. 1. " The troops landed and killed a hundred Indians," im- 
plies that they brought the Indians with them ; " The troops landed, and killed 
a hundred Indians, 1 ' expresses the true meaning. "Alphonso Karr, a celebrated 
writer, distinguished for his taste and knowledge in botany," implies taste in 
botany ; " Alphonso Karr, a celebrated writer, distinguished for his taste, and 
knowledge in botany," refers only the knowledge to botany. " I said he is dis- 
honest, it is true ; and I am sorry for it," differs widely from, "I said he is dis- 
honest ; it is true, and I am sorry for it." " I can not violate my oath to support 
the Constitution," implies that the oath relates to the Constitution ; " I can no£ 
violate my oath, to support the Constitution," implies some other oath. " Why 
did you not come to us in the beginning of the night ?" inquires about the 
cause ; " Why, did you not come to us in the beginning of the night ?" inquires 
about the fact. " The groat principles of government which are easily under- 
stood, are known everywhere," refers to some of the great principles only ; " The 
great principles of government, which are easily understood, are known every- 
where," refers to all of them. " Shame ! where is thy blush ?" is an address 
to shame. "0, shame! where is thy blush?" is an address to something else. 
2. " Yes, you shall." "Yes; and for you too." "Yes: he has done all this, 
and yet you are not satisfied." 3. " Since our journey began, it had rained in 
torrents ; and now both horse and rider refused to go a step farther : the beast, 
because he sank up to his knees in mud ; and the rider, because he was wet to 
the bone." 4. " Study to promote the happiness of mankind : it is the true end 
of your creation;" "Study to promote the happiness of mankind; for it is the 
true end of your creation." " Let it appear so; make your vaunting true ;" " Let 
it appear so, and make your vaunting true." " The cool, sequestered paths of 
life;" " The cool and sequestered paths of life." 5. " There was fire above and 
below the house ;" " Good men are not always found in union with, but some- 
times in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another." "Teach, urge, 
threaten, lecture Mm;" "We would oppose, resist, repel, such intrusion." 
6. " To God, nothing is impossible;" "Nothing is impossible to God." a To 
secure Ms election, it is said that votes were bought ;" " 11 is said that votes were 
bought to secure his election." 

In discourse occurs frequently what is called the rhetorical pause, — a slight 



PUNCTUATION. OBSERVATIONS. 349 

suspension in the sense, requiring no point, but often mistaken for the sense 
wWch reauirM a point. "The love of liberty, is in every breast, ' should be 
4htlove of ltberty is in every breast." When emphasis or the rhetorical 
muse comeides with the grammatical sense, it may induce the insertion of a 

pediments, would, had time been given h.m, ha ^ ™ 1* V w™ Quired " 
decision, to ^^^^ O^l^cToi^eT ZZ^L 
-Punctuation made Flam |"[ ^ the intolerant laws 

^To^t^^^S^ * ^Iur. en SerCrt° n a 
mXiv the coton would have suggested a different connection in thought; the 

t,v.n "Armi arm i it is— it is— the cannon's opening roar! — Byron. Bus 
B .n^LT' "Wherever he [the bobolink] goes, pop! pop! pop! the 



350 PUNCTUATION. OBSERVATIONS. 

midst 11 " ' The highest classes are rich and haughty' [but the lowest classes are 
poor and humble]." "The most certain plan of success (I have it from a woman, 
and, I believe, an excellent authority,) is any way to interest them. In my own 
case — (I thought your poor mother had a deal of money, but — well, never mind,) 
— I at last affected consumption." — Jerrold. Here 1 should have omitted the 
comma from the latter curve ; and the dashes and curves together are perhaps 
not both needed. The point is often better put after the latter curve only. "And 
the worse the case is about my companions — my fellow-paupers (for I must bear 
the word) — the greater are my chances of finding something for them — some- 
thing which may prevent my feeling myself utterly useless in the world." Lord 
Macaulay, I believe, has never used a parenthesis. 

A word is frequently set off by the comma, or not set off by it, according as 
it has the sense of a conjunction or that of an adverb. " You did not see him, 
then?" " You did not see him then?" "However, I will not shrink, however 
great the responsibility may be." " He gave the ideal, too, of truth and beauty;" 
"He is too bad to be sent there too. 11 "Therefore have I written to him;" "I 
have, therefore, written to him." "So pleased at first, the towering Alps we 
try ;" "So, pleased at first, the towering Alps we try." The pointing sometimes 
depends on how smoothly the part flows with the other words. " Perhaps we 
shall never see him again." "We shall perhaps never see him again." " We 
shall never, perhaps, see him again." Also, too, perhaps, and therefore, often do 
not require a point. Here and there are sometimes set off, when emphatic or 
contrasted. As well as with a nominative, between another nominative and the 
verb, is set off. Parts compared or slightly contrasted, and closely depending on 
something after them, are often not separated ; as, " It is a small but thrifty tree." 
An intermediate phrase beginning with if not, is always set off. When two or 
more modifying parts are parenthetic, the less coalescent are set off. " And her 
eyes on all my motions, with a mute observance, hung." — Goold Brown. Better : 
"And her eyes, on all my motions, with a mute observance hung." A restrictive 
relative clause seldom needs a comma before it, even when separated from its 
antecedent ; as, " He preaches sublimely who lives a righteous and pious life." 
" It was the scarcity ot the peaches that made them so dear." When that begins a 
clause depending closely on it, preceding it, or on a governing or controlling 
verb, or on so or such, the clause does not require the comma. " It is reported 
that he is coming 11 "1 know that he is honest." " He does it that you may praise 
him." " It was so heavy that I could not carry it." When such or so begins the 
previous clause, the latter is set off; also, when the latter is emphatic. When 
two connected phrases, of moderate length, begin with articles, or are bound to- 
gether by both — and, either — or, neither — nor, they seldom need the comma be- 
tween them. When or connects adjectives or adverbs that are alternative in 
sense, they need not be separated. " Answers that are given in a careless, or in- 
different manner." — Willson's Readers. Omit the comma. A noun qualified or gov- 
erned by adjectives or verbs before it, is not usually set off from them. " It was a 
bright, lovely day." "He soils, tears, and loses his books; "So, adverbs, when 
followed by wbat they modify. " We are fearfully, wonderfully made." Also, the 
antecedents of adjuncts; as, "The leaves, blossoms, and roots of the tree." 
But when the connecting word is omitted before an adjunct or object, the com- 
ma is inserted ; as, " He soils, tears, loses, his books." " The leaves, blossoms, 
roots, of the tree." But adjectives like the following, and separated nominatives, 
should be set off. " The former are called voluntary, and the latter involuntary 
muscles." — Willson's Readers. "Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential 
to happiness." — John Wilson. Here a comma should be placed after "involun- 
tary," and also one after " temperance." The punctuation of the former sentence 
is so common an error, and that of the latter is so well authorized, that we shall 
quote some strong authority against both : — 

" I perceive one mistake in your manner of pointing. When there are sev- 



PUNCTUATION. OBSERVATIONS. MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 351 

eral nouns of the nominative case to one verb, you admit no comma after the 
last of them previous to the verb. Or when there are several distinct short 
members of the sentence verging into one concluding one, you admit no stop 
between the last of them and this concluding one. In this, I am persuaded you 
are wrong, according to the dictates of reason, as well as the highest authority. 
Of the authority I am quite certain. A passage or two where you have intro- 
duced this correction, will tell what I mean. ' A new train of ideas, presenting 
the possible, and magnifying the certain, difficulties of the situation.' ' Though 
a man is obedient, and probably will be obedient, to habit,' &c. { They are 
mistaken if they imagine that the influences which guide, or the moral prin- 
ciples which impel, this self-applauding progress,' &c. Now, I feel most certain 
that the comma ought to remain in all such cases, and that the contrary manner 
is a vulgar mode only of pointing. The authority of G-ibbon is decisive, and he 
invariably points, in such instances, as I have shown." — Foster's Life and Cor- 
respondence. 

Repeated parts are not usually set off when they govern an objective or 
qualify something immediately after them. The comma is often improperly 
omitted before and, when this connects the last two terms of a series; as, U A, B 
and Co." The Company does not belong more to B than to A ; therefore the 
comma should be inserted ; as, "A, B, and Co." The comma is, however, generally 
omitted when the short and (&) is used. " John, James and William are com- 
ing," implies that I am telling John what the other two boys are doing. Insert 
the comma, and the sense is clear. Mr. Wilson omits the comma when and or 
nor is inserted after each term. It is generally best to insert the comma ; as, 
" The health, and strength, and freshness, and sweet sleep of youth, are yours." 
— R. G. Parker. The comma, however, may be so used elsewhere as to exclude 
the use of it in the series. " The voyages of G-osnold and Smith and Hudson, 
the enterprise of Baleigh and Delaware and G-orges," etc. — Bancroft. " Divid- 
ing and gliding and sliding, and falling and brawling and sprawling, " etc. — 
Southey. Indeed, the comma is sometimes excluded within, because a greater 
point can not be admitted at the end. In the United States the comma is usu- 
ally omitted between the number and the name of a street ; as, " No. 75 Spruce 
Street." The sense, however, requires it; though when "No." is omitted, the fig- 
ures may perhaps be conceived as an adjective, like upper, for instance, in the 
phrase, "on the upper Mississippi," which shows on what part, and requires no com- 
ma. In the United States, the comma is generally not inserted between the word 
price and the number, though the strict sense requires it ; as, " Price $5." Dr. Bul- 
lions writes, " I, Paul, have written it." This may imply that Paul is addressed, 
and should therefore be, "I Paul have written it." Mr. Butler writes, " Words 
ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change," etc. This implies that the words 
are preceded by a consonant, and should therefore be, " Words ending in y 
preceded by a consonant, change," etc. Mr. G-oold Brown writes, "To carve 
for others, is, to starve yourself." " So that the term, language, now signifies, any 
series" etc. All these commas are superfluous or wrong. Mr. Brown frequently 
punctuates too closely, and sometimes contradicts himself. His system is in- 
adequate ; Dr. Mandeville's is, radically, partly sound and partly unsound ; Mr. 
Wilson's is, upon the whole, the best extant ; though it is both deficient and too 
voluminous. 

MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 

1. Marks of Omission. 

Blank space, Ditto ( " " or < ' ) 7 JDots ( . . . ), 

Apostrophe ( ' ), Long dash ( ), 

Caret ( /), Stars ( * * * * *), Hyphens ( ). 



352 PUNCTUATION. MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 

Ex. — " "Why do you repeat 

My words, as if you feared to trust your own!" Blank space, at the 
beginning or the end of a line of poetry, best shows omission. 
" Columbus ! 'tis day, and the darkness is o'er!" 
"What o'clock?" "Daniel O'Connel." " M'c Donald." " McDonald." 
(Contractions.) 

f ie the evil 

" Suf A ic A nt for the day is A thereof." (Accidental omission.) 

" 10 lbs. of coffee, @ 10 cts. per pound, $1.00. 

12 " " sugar, u 8J u « ' « ....... 1.00. 

" "We have come into the den of a " 

* But he married yet if he had married " 

" And Mrs. S * * * * ? is she as beautiful as ever?" 

" *D — n the vagabond !' said he, in such a tone that I positively startled." 

" Poor Mrs. C (why should I not 

Declare her name ? — her name was Cross) — 
Was one of those ' the common lot' 
Had left to mourn no ' common loss.' " — Hood. 
%t The next shall tell thee, bitterly shall tell, 
Thoughts that * * * * * 

Thoughts that — could patience hold — 'twere better far, 
To leave still hid and burning where they are." — T. Moore : Fudge 

[Family. 
"No. 



I promise to pay to , or bearer, dollars/' etc. 

Mr. Wilson seems to recommend the dash for omitted letters, the periods for 
omitted words, and the stars for omitted sentences. But the distinction is not 
always regarded. 

2. Marks of Pronunciation or Utterance. 

C Acute ( f ), Diaeresis ( • • ), Webster's Notation, 

Accents ;1 Grave ( ), Hyphen ( - ), (See his Dictionary,) 

( Circumflex ( A ), Separatrix ( | ), Worcester's Notation, 

Macron ( - ), Cedilla (under c=s), (See his Dictionary.) 

Breve ( u ), Tilde (over n=:ny), 

Ex.— " To conflict, a conflict." " Will you walk, or ride ?" 

" Madam, you have my father much offended." (Stress, inflection, modula- 
tion, etc.) 

"Machine, Miongo, Montreal, fete, la." (Long sound.) 

" Ye shepherds, so cheerful and gay." — Fowler. 

" Holy, | holy, | holy, | all the | saints a | dore thee." — Brown. (Poetic ac- 
cents and feet.) 

" G-16-ri-ous, soul-dls-eased, Im-pru-dent." (Quantity.) 

"And hearken to the bird's love-learned song — love-learned song." " Reap-* 
pear, re-appear; coordinate, co-ordinate; aerial, Menelaus, Antinoiis, Danae " 
These marks show that a suppressed syllable must be pronounced, or they 
prevent two syllables from being improperly made one. The hyphen is often 
preferred when the first part is a prefix, or when each of the parts is significant. 

" Facade, chaise, gargon, (generally placed before a or o,) senor." " Where 
the troop of Miiion [Minyun] wheels." 



PUNCTUATION. MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 353 

3. Marks of Reference. 

SUr, or asterisk ( * ), 1st reference ; Paragraph ( 1T ) ; 
Dagger, or obelisk ( t ), 2d a Then doubled (** ft, etc.) ; 

Double dagger, ov diesis ( | ) ; Then trebled (***, ttt, etc.) ; 

Section ( § ) ; Also superiors — fevers or: figures (», b , 

ParaZfefe ( || ) ; c , », 2 , 3 )- 

These marks are placed, in the order we have shown, over words /rom 
which reference is made, and also at the head of those, in the margin, to 
which the reference is made. 

4. Marks Directing Attention. 

The index, or hand ( |y ), directs special attention to something. 
Ex. — " (H^f 33 All orders by mail must be accompanied by the cash." 

The asterisrrij or three stars (*#*), precedes a note that has a general 
reference. 

Ex. — u * * * The Teacher should require his pupils to spell and define the 
most important words in every lesson that is read." 

my. -l f S \ unites two or more parts, and generally refers them in 
^ { ' common to something else. It should open toward 
the more numerous parts. 

" Not that my verse should blemish all the fair ; ) 

Yet some are bad, — 'tis wisdom to beware, > 

And better to avoid the bait, than struggle in the snare." ) — Dry den. 
(A triplet introduced among couplets.) 

The paragraph ( IT ) usually marks the longer divisions of a large divi- 
sion : it shows where something new begins. 

The section ( § ) usually marks the smaller divisions of a long division 

Both these marks are conveniently used with numbers, to abridge 
references. 

Ex. — " Tf o7. Pure Verbs. Second Aorists." — Crosby. 

"§ 219. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun," etc. — Id. 

Leaders ( ) lead the eye from one part to another over a 

blank space. 

Page 

Ex.— "Naples 63 

Pompeii — Herculaneum, 65." (Index.) 

"George is a noun, it is a name," etc. 

"Has been rewarded is a verb," etc. 

5. Marks Used in Correcting Proof-Sheets. 

Peter SchoeiFer is said to be the person who Caps. 

invented cast metal types, having learned 

(V the art-ef of cutting' the letters fr^ni the Gat- o 

tembergs, he is also supposed to have been *y 

ft the first whoengraved on copperplates The - [ 



* 



354 MARKS USED IN CORRECTING PROOF-SHEETS. 

following testimony is preseved in the family, r 

^| by Jo. Fred. Faustus of Ascheffenburg: ±f 

^f .Peter Schoeffer of Gernsheim, perceiving his S.cap- 

\/ master Fausts design, and being himself 

tr. (desirous\ ardentryJ ) to improve the art, found 

out (by the good providence of God) the 

-f- method of cutting (incidendi ) the characters stet. 

in a matrix, that the letters might easily be 

,1 singly cas^r instead of bieng cut. He pri- ei\ 

1/ vately cut matrices § for the whole alphabet: m 

Faust was so pleased with the contrivance 

/J^at he promised J^eter to give hirp^nis only w.f, 

/j a ughter Christina in marriage', a promise Ital* 

/^ich he soon after perforniedV) No ^. 

as (But there were many difficulties at first 

Bom. with these lettey$, as there had be en before w| 

ItaL with woodpn ones, the metal being by mixing out s.c 
~~/T 2 1 A 

tr. the a^ubstance with metal which hardened iti O 

(a?id when he showed his master the letters 
cast from these matrices, 



4 



EXPLANATION'S. 

dele — take out the superfluous word "of." 

(ft turn the reversed letter "p." 

Jfc insert a space between " who" and " engraved." 

\^ less space between the words. 

IT make a new paragraph. 

tr. transpose the words " desirous" and " ardently." 

stet. let incidendi (accidentally erased) remain. 

w.f. " wrong fount" type to be changed. 

outs.c. "out, see copy." The words omitted being too 
numerous for the margin, the compositor is 
referred to the original copy for them. 
The other marks are self-explanatory. 



y o * .* ■* .O v 



rO ? , 








4 . 



^ * O K ^ ,^ 








1 V* 

1? 






■ > 





































% 





V 



^ ^ 



.1* ,- x 



& ^ 








v>> 



?>' %, ' J> 






ff c> 



I 



'% <$> 



X* * 










